BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS OF CATTLE AS INDICATORS OF ANIMAL HEALTH & WELFARE
Dairy cows achieve high milk production and reproduction results only when they are healthy and their basic behavioral needs are provided for, equally important are correct nutrition and environmental parameters. Behavior of cows requires constant and precise observation. Behavior of dairy cows is an excellent indicator, because any long-term or short-term deviation from the norm is very important signal of cow welfare, allowing for quicker decision making on significant issues affecting the farm. Additionally, unnecessary expenses can be avoided, as well as production efficiency can be increased and health parameters and reproduction can improve. Behaviour is one of the most commonly used and sensitive indicators of animal welfare.
Any behavior that does not fall in to the normal behavior repertoire of a species is termed as abnormal, while a stereotypy is a relatively invariant sequence of movements which has no obvious purpose or benefits such as prepuce sucking, scrotum sucking, tongue playing, bar biting and eye rolling are the examples of stereotypic abnormal behavior in dairy animals. It has been reported that 64 per cent of dairy animals comprising indigenous cows, crossbred cows and buffaloes kept under loose housing system at an organized dairy farm were suffering from one or other anomalous behavior.
The prevalence of these behaviors can be safely presumed to be much higher under conventional housing and rearing systems existent in rural India where the animals are kept tied at one place through most of the day and night. The growing calves, high producing cows and buffaloes are particularly susceptible to inadequacies in their behavior needs. Therefore under intensive housing and management conditions farmers need to pay greater attention to an animal’s physical environment and modify some of the management practices in order to satisfy the major behavioral needs of their animals which will ultimately result in increased animal productivity and profit from dairy farming.
There is mounting empirical evidence that measures of behavior can be used to predict and identify health and welfare concerns in dairy cattle (von Keyserlingk et al., 2009). Interest in the association between dairy cow behavior and illness is growing, particularly with an increasing availability of commercially available equipment that is readily available for the automated monitoring of dairy cow behavior. These technologies provide ready access to vast quantities of accurate and repeatable measures of behavior. Thus, with such technologies, there are new opportunities for the automation detection (through identification and prediction) of health concerns in dairy cattle, potentially allowing for better prevention and treatment protocols to be implemented.
- Good or normal behaviours include:
- Grazing or eating from a feed trough or hay bale
- Curiosity about your presence or something that is different in the corral or pasture (this is where they are watching and sniffing and even licking, if they get the nerve to come close enough to this strange “thing”)
- Scratching an itch on a fence, tree or the side of a building
- Tossing their head back over the shoulder (only if flies are bothering them)
- Any other activity that involves licking itself or another friend
- Chewing their cud, be it standing or laying down
- Going to find a place to lie down
- Watching you with an expression of mild to somewhat-intent interest
- Raising and bobbing their heads to smell you, if you’ve got their attention
- The bull”courting” the cows (sniffing and licking the genital area, attempting to mount, etc.)
- Bad or threatening behaviours include (mostly exhibited by an over-protective bull or mother cow):
- Wrinkling of the muzzle much like a dog (it’s less obvious than what you would see in a dog, but if you look close enough [at a safe distance, mind you] you may be able to see it)
- Glaring or intently staring or fixation on you or a predator
- Pawing the ground
- Showing their side
- Growling (sounds something like a low “RRrrrruuumph!” Rrrruummph!”)
- Shaking or tossing of the head
- Charging towards you and stopping short (definitely a challenge and a threat)
- Non-threatening behaviours that mean that the animal is anything but calm and relaxed include:
- Head up, ears perked forward means alert, very nervous, tense, and a little scared and unsure.
- Stilting, high-stepping walk, still staring at you in the same manner as previously mentioned means the animal is alert and on the verge of flight because of fear.
- Showing the whites of the eyes – could mean that the animal is unsure, nervous, tense, or slightly fearful
- Mad switching of the tail (this indicates intense anxiety, except when calves are suckling from momma or the flies are really bugging the cattle).
- Startling at a sudden movement, shying away from something, etc. all indicates tension, insecurity and fear.
- Stampede only results if the fear they feel is overwhelming and they need to get away from it as fast as possible. Because cattle are prey animals, flight and keeping with the herd is their best (but not the only) defense mechanism against the offending stimulus.
The major abnormal behaviors observed in dairy cattle and buffaloes and the preventive and management measures to be taken are discussed as under:
- Inter Sucking and Cross Sucking Behavior in Calves
- Inter Sucking or Self Sucking In Adult Cows
- Pica or Licking of Inanimate Objects
- Silent Heat Problems
- Milk Ejection Reflex Failure
- Neonatal Rejection
- Kicking Backwards
- Urine Drinking Problem
- Other Behavioural Problems
Inter Sucking and Cross Sucking Behavior in Calves
Inter-sucking is most common abnormal behavior in early weaned cattle and buffalo calves as they have not given opportunity to satisfy their natural suckling instinct. They start sucking or licking the naval, prepuce, scrotum ears and tails of their herd mates and inanimate objects mostly of teat shaped. The scrotum sucking is very common among male calves. The testes are pushed up by the nose of sucking calf which then sucks on the empty scrotal sac. The posture and position of sucking calf is like the naturally suckling calf. It has been observed that the calves involve in sucking have a relationship with one specific herd mate, which tolerates the sucking. In majority of cases calves make a group and then they start sucking the different body parts of each other and arrange themselves in the form of ring or chain (cross sucking).
Occasionally two calves forms a pair bond in which mutual sucking takes place (inter-sucking) while self sucking seldom take place. The inter-sucking or cross sucking activities are most commonly seen immediately after feeding of milk and during this period in addition to sucking the appendages of their herd mates the calves start sucking whatever the things they can get in their surroundings.
Excessive inter-sucking and cross sucking may leads to formation of hair balls in the rumen which may affects the digestive functions as well as adversely affects the growth and vitality of the affected calves. Some times the inter-sucking may gets transformed in to insatiable sucking or biting which may results in to formation of wound in the suckled parts of the calves. Incidence of inter-sucking has been found to be more in those calves that were not allowed to suckle their dam rather they are pail fed and kept in groups from very beginning. In addition to this diet low in energy and proteins also predispose the calves to these types of abnormal behavior.
In the organized farm weaning of calves has becomes a routine practice due to which the problem of inter-sucking has been found to be more in newborn calves. Adopting certain managemental practices can minimize the incidence of inter-sucking. The calves should be tied up separately for an hour following bucket feeding as the inter-sucking among the weaned calves has been found to be maximal immediately after feeding of milk. The supply of good quality roughage and or concentrate mixture may also result in reduction in inter-sucking. In addition to this rubbing of one pinch common salt over the tongue of calves immediately after milk feeding has also been found to be quite useful. Besides the suckling of teat the time taken in consumption of milk is also important.
When calves are allowed for suckling their mothers they spend 60 minutes per day in doing so but when milk is being fed through bucket calves spend only 6 minutes per day (Sambraus, 1985). Hence to control this anomaly the best result are obtained by providing feeding condition which resemble those of normal ingestive behavior in young animals. In order to satisfy the natural suckling instinct of the calves the feeding of milk should be done through bottle with a nipple. This problem has also been observed in calves those were suckling their dam, in that situation the affected calves should be housed individually and if the individual housing of the calves is not possible then muzzle can be applied to the problematic calves or some repellents such as Neem oil should be smeared over the appendages of the calves. The ration given to the calves should be well balanced in terms of energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Inter Sucking or Self Sucking In Adult Cows
In this type of abnormal behavior cows may suck their own teats or the teats of their herd mates. The inter-sucking or self-sucking has been found to be more common in young lactating cows than in the older cows. It has been reported that as many as 25.2 per cent of the primiparous cows and buffaloes and 4.3 per cent of the multiparous cows and buffaloes were observed to suffer from inter-sucking or self-sucking. The cow which sucks milk from their herd mate characteristically chooses the same lactating animal and this leads to formation of paired arrangement. The most of the instances of inter-sucking has been seen in animals waiting the evening milking.
The overcrowding, large group size and genetic make-up also predisposes the animal to develop this type of behavior. The incidence of inter-sucking as well as self-sucking has some genetic predisposition also. The behavior despite causing financial losses to the farmer by way of reduced milk production also predisposes the teats and udders of animals to injury and pathological changes.
This abnormal behavior can be corrected by application of a modified bull nose ring having spines to the suckler cows which will cause pain to their herd mates during sucking. In the affected animals the self-sucking can also be prevented by use of anti-suck harness, Elizabethan collar or neck cradles (series of wooden planks fitted around the neck) to restrict the movement of the neck. In order to distract the sucking behavior some bitter substances can be smeared on the teats of affected cows.
As a preventive measure the milking of lactating animals should be done with regular interval and at fixed time interval. There should be sufficient space to the animals and the size of the group should be small. If the self-sucking behavior persist even after implementing the preventive measures then it is either better to isolate the problematic animal or cull them from the herd.
Pica or Licking of Inanimate Objects
The behavior of the licking inanimate objects or pica includes licking the wall and floor surfaces of the pen, mangers or chewing of woods, rags, polythene sheets, rubber or any other things which is available in the vicinity of the animal. The adult animals as well as calves both have been found to be distinctly indulged in this type of anomalous behavior. However, the early-weaned calves that are housed in individual calf pens are more prone to the development of this behavioral problem. The deficiency of phosphorus or the imbalanced calcium and phosphorus ratio in the animal diet also predisposes the animals to develop habit of licking of inanimate objects. Pica also occurs in young calves and in high yielding dairy animals suffering from
In order to minimize this type of behavioral anomaly the diet of the affected animals should be supplemented with phosphorus and the ratio of calcium and phosphorus should be maintained at 2:1. Some times deficient animals fails to ingest a sufficient quantity of supplemented feed to attain satisfactory level of phosphorus, in such cases phosphorus should be given to the affected animals in the form of injectable solution. In addition to this the animal should be given sufficient space and allowed for grazing and if grazing is not possible then they should be left loose for few hours. The animals should not be allowed to graze in areas where the garbage has been thrown.
Silent Heat Problems
In this condition animal will not show behavioral signs of estrus although the physiological symptoms of heat will be present. Although the general pattern of sexual behavior is almost similar in cattle and buffaloes but the intensity of expression of behavioral signs of estrus in buffaloes is markedly less pronounced especially during summer months as the buffaloes are relatively inefficient to maintain their thermoregulation under increased environmental temperature and at high relative humidity. So due to this reason buffaloes are in constant heat stress during summers which causes the suppression of behavioral signs of estrus. The behavioral sign of heat such as bellowing may be absent and the heat is therefore termed as silent. In addition to this the other behavioral signs of estrus such as mounting to fellow animals and allowing other animals to mount, restlessness may also be expressed in much diminished intensity.
The vulva of buffalo in heat will be slightly swollen and slight radish in colour as well as a string of mucus found hanging from the vulva or present inside vulval lips is a sure sign of heat in summer season. However the behavioral signs of estrus are more pronounced during cooler hours of the day especially during early morning and late evening. So the buffalo in estrus can be detected by parading a teaser bull during these periods and also by close observation by a trained person during early morning hours. The incidence of silent heat has been found to be more in cows and buffaloes, which were neither allowed for grazing nor given any exercise, and being kept on concrete floors. The animals that are not given sufficient protective measures from the extremes of the weather are most sufferers.
In cattle the incidence of silent heat is found to be more in high producing cows while in heifers the silent heat is highest in those heifers that are low in position in the social hierarchy of the herd. If grouping of cows have been made without considering the ranks of cows in the herd this will results in decrease in efficiency of heat detection as the submissive cows may avoid mounting to dominant cows. In addition to this also the incidence has been found to be high when group size is very large in which there is ongoing social conflicts and that will result in to instability to social hierarchy.
Solutions to Overcome Silent Heat Problem
This problem can be overcome by removing different constraints such as allowing animals for grazing or left them loose for few hours where the animals have been tied. There should be provision of non-slippery or kuccha floors to facilitate the mounting activity of the cows that are in estrus. In summer season water should be sprinkled over the body of the animals for 5-10 minutes twice or thrice daily or allow them to wallow for two hours daily in the morning and in the evening to alleviate the impact of heat stress. At large organized dairy farm mistress cooling system installed inside the shed is found to be very effective in maintaining normal estrus behavior of buffaloes and cross-bred cows. If the roof are made up of asbestos or iron sheet then spread some paddy straw over it make wet by sprinkling of water. Animal should be fed green fodder and the feeding must be done during cool hours of the day. During summer the feed intake of the animal is reduce so the quality of the ration should be improved in order to fulfill their physiological needs. In addition to this there should be improved or efficient methods of heat detection. A combination of methods is better than relying on a single method of heat detection. Visual observation should be performed by trained persons during cooler hours of the day especially during early morning and late evening as the behavioral signs of estrus are more pronounced during this period. Parading of teasure /vasectomized bull during early morning and late evening.
Heat Detection
A bull will always notice a cow in heat and will serve her if there are no boundaries between the bull and cow. Many cows have heat signs that are difficult to notice for humans. The heat signs that humans can see are:
- The animal becomes restless, sometimes separating itself from the rest of the herd, walking along fences to seek a bull.
- The animal tries to mount other animals, sniffs them and is sniffed at by others (see figure)
- The animal bellows in order to attract a bull (the Zebu does not do this).
- Standing heat: the cow stands still when she is mounted by other animals (standing is the only reliable practical test of heat, see figure).
- Signs that the animal has been mounted by others, such as mud on its flanks, bare patches of skin on the hook or the pinbone, ruffled hair on the back etc. (see figure).
- The lips of the vulva turn red and are somewhat swollen (see figure).
- There is a discharge of clear, thin mucus hanging from the vulva or adhering to the tail (see figure).
The average heat period lasts about 11 hours, so in order to detect heat you should check the cows at least 3 times a day: early in the morning, in the afternoon and late in the evening (spend about 20 minutes each time). Cows should be calm (not distracted by feeding or so).
Milk Ejection Reflex Failure
Milk ejection reflex or milk let-down is not a simple mechanical withdrawal of milk from the mammary gland. This is a neuro-endocrine pathway which comes into action when the udder gets stimulated. In milk let-down failure the cow fails to release milk in response to milking/nursing stimuli.
This happens as a results of several stressors such as death of the calves, abrupt changes in the feeds and feeding schedule, irregular time of milking, loud and various unfamiliar noises, visit of unfamiliar persons in the milking parlour or at the site of milking, change of milker and beating or rough handling at the time of milking especially in first calvers.
The inhibition of milk let-down response can be avoided by removing or minimizing all the disturbing factors at the time of milking. To avoid the milk ejection failure as a result of death of calves, the fetal membrane of cow/buffalo should be rubbed over the body of each calves present in the farm when parturition take place so that milk let down could be effected. There should be no sudden change in the diet and the feeding schedule as well as time of milking.
Animal should be handled gently and with great patience before and during milking. It is important that first calvers should be handled with utmost patience as they feel uneasiness when the milker massages their teats for the first time. If there is no milk let down milker should try again after some time but in no case animal should be harassed. Likewise, the lactating animal purchased or brought from outside should be handled gently and permitted some time before they are milked so that they may become familiar with the new surroundings.
Neonatal Rejection
Cases of neonatal rejection are more commonly seen in first calvers especially in those having experienced difficulty at birth. As they lack previous exposure to this type of situation so they assume her calves as competitors and react accordingly. They interrupt the suckling by repeatedly making movement and turn their faces towards the calves. Sometime they may become aggressive and may butt or kick the calves as it approaches them.
Incidence of neonatal rejection has been found to be more in those pregnant heifers who have faced competition for food, water and social ranking as they are being kept in large groups till the end of gestation period. Sometimes neonatal rejection also takes place due to short-term separation of the calf immediately after birth as the critical bond formation between dam and calve (imprinting) takes place during this period.
In order to reduce the incidence of neonatal rejection it should be ensured that the calving should take place in an isolated area or in the calving box. In order to facilitate the development of imprinting and onset of suckling the calf should be not be separated from its dam immediately after its birth and should be allowed to remain with its dam to permit licking its and the removal of afterbirth from the body of the calf.
Kicking Backwards
Kicking during milking generally develops as a result of faulty treatment and handling when heifer is milked for the first time. Initially the animal kicks either due to mild pain associated with massaging of teats or simply because of fear of human manipulation of teats of newly calved heifer.
It is difficult to subside the habit of kicking once it gets established. So the handling of the teats of heifer should be started at least 2 to 3 days before the date of calving that will make them accustomed to milking practices. If cow become habitual of kicking then tying of hind legs at the time of milking using milkman knot or eight shaped knot. Tying of a rope around the body of cow just in front of udder will also serve the purpose.
With many cows in which this method has been used for several times, then now it may be necessary only to throw the rope over the back of cow at the time of milking. Use of anti-kick chain can also be recommended if other methods are not successful for the prevention of kicking.
Urine Drinking Problem
In this type of behavioral abnormality animals start sucking and drinking their own urine or the urine of their herd mates. This anomalous behavior is commonly seen in the animals of all age groups and especially common in individually housed bulls and also in bullocks used for draught purpose. About 52 per cent of total cases of urine drinking has been reported in bull calves. Diet deficient in minerals predisposes the animals to this type of anomaly.
In order to subside the development of this habit effort should be made in very beginning of the anomalous behavior. Affected animals should be isolated from the herd and their diet is supplemented with mineral mixture and common salt. There should be sufficient space to each animal and group size should be small. In addition to this there should be an easy access to watering troughs having fresh and clean water all over the time.
Other Behavioural Problems
Buller Steer Syndrome
In this type of anomaly the young male calves (Rider) mount their herd mates willing to be mounted (Buller). There is no intromission attempt made by rider, although some times there may be partial penile erection. The riders perform the mounting attempts either from the sides or from the front of the bullers. Young male calves weaned early in life as well as kept in intensive housing system are prone to development of this type of behavioral problem. Addition of new steer to a well-established group of male calves result in an increased incidence of buller steer syndrome. Some time the bulling may be the part of hierarchical contesting.
In order to reduce the incidence of buller steer syndrome close watch should be kept over the steers at least once a day, for identification of buller. The bullers are separated from the lot and kept with fewer animal groups. Newborn male calves should be kept with their mother for some time, which will inhibit the confined indoors. It has been reported that around 11.39 per cent of total animal in the herd are suffering with this type of behavior problem.
Tongue Rolling or Playing
In this type of behavioral anomaly animals extrude their tongue from the mouth and moved by curling and uncurling outside or inside of the mouth. After that partial swallowing of the tongue and gulping of the air take place. It is perform by cows and buffaloes to satisfy their instinct of prehension of forage plants during grazing. Tongue rolling is seen most frequently immediately before and after feeding. It has been observed that hereditable factor and early weaning of calves can increase the incidence of this behavior.
Animal should be left for grazing or they should be given the freedom of movement by keeping them untied for few hours. Visual separation of affected animal is required to prevent the spread of this behavioral abnormality to other animals and they should be given some unchaffed fodder for chewing. Animals having the habit of tongue playing should not be kept as breeding stock.
Eye Rolling
This is condition in which eyes are moved in orbit at a time when there are no visible objects present in surroundings of the animal. Affected calves stand immobile for extended period of time, head is held motion less along with rolling of the eyes and it is repeated frequently. This behavior has been found to be more in those calves that are kept in confinement in individual calf box and lack the access to loafing area. Calves should be given some loafing area for walking and exercise and if this is not possible then they should be kept loose for some period of time.
Head Shaking or Nodding
Head shaking has been observed mostly in the adult animals that are being kept in confined housing environment for all the time. Animal while shaking the head they hit their head with manger, wall of the house, peg etc. and they keep it up for a long time if not being interrupted. They start doing this activity at any time whenever they become free after taking their feed, but the maximum incidence has been observed during night hours. Such animals create nuisance to their owner if they are being kept adjacent to the residing room of the owner.
As the problem of head shaking arises as a consequence of confined housing environment so it will be better if the animals are allowed for grazing or they should be kept untied for few hours so that may involve in social interaction with each other.
Feed Related Vices
In order to satisfy their natural grazing and exploratory instincts some dairy animals are found to be indulge in some feed related vices such as – Feed tossing, Dropping of feed and Water lapping. In feed tossing behavior the animal starts rooting, sorting and finally tossing the feeds along the sides of manger. In feed dropping behavior the animal drops feeds from an elevated feed manger to the ground and then eats that feed which may be the cow’s solution of fulfilling her natural grazing instinct. Such behavior by the dairy animals may result in to 5 per cent feed loss of the feed offered to them. In water lapping behavior the animal starts licking at water instead of drinking. It is commonly seen in animals that are not allowed for grazing and are deprived of any exercise.
Problems associated with feeding of animals can be over come by allowing grazing to the animals that are kept tied on their feeding stall round the clock. In case grazing facilities are not available then they may be kept loose for at least one hour daily so that they can overcome the frustration of being confined at one place. The fodder should be chaffed finely so that all part of the fodder plants get properly mixed which will preclude any preferential feeding by the animal. The mangers should be properly designed and the bottoms of the mangers should be close to the ground level so that the animals may satisfy their grazing behavior to some extent.
Rubbing
Some parts of body is moved back and forward by the animal against a solid object. The movement is repeated so many times that it could not function only to alleviate a local irritation. It is more common in animals kept in confinement and comparatively more noticeable in horned breed and more common in bull than the other stock.
Bar Biting
In this condition animal clamps his jaws around a bar and moving the head forth and back for a minute or more. Bar biting has been reported in 10 per cent in bulls reared at National Dairy Research Institute Karnal. Incidence of this behavioral problem has been found to be more in calves weaned in early age as well in those calves that are being kept in individual calf box and not having access to loafing area. This behaviour develops due to confinement for long duration at one place and weaning of calve in very early age life.
This problem can be managed by feeding the calves by using artificial nurser/teat if weaning of calve in early age can’t be avoided and use bedding material such as wheat or paddy straw which will provide oral occupation to calves.
Some considerations to prevent the development of abnormal behavior in cattle and buffaloes
- If possible one should follow loose housing system and house the animals as per their age, body wt., physiological status and social hierarchy in the herd.
- In case the farmers are bound to opt for conventional housing system then they should provide ample space to animal for walking and exercise. If calves are weaned immediately after birth or at very early age then milk feeding to the calves should be done by artificial teats or a bottle with a screw nipple and immediately after milk feeding they should be fed ground grain mixture/wheat bran so as to distract them from indulging in inter-sucking.
Sexual behaviour
As the cow reaches oestrus the bull becomes very excited and follows her closely, licking and smelling her external genitalia and often exhibiting flehmen. Recent work has shown that the bull uses the tongue to transfer fluid (probably urine) to a short incisive spur located on the dental pad. It is then transferred to the vomeronasal organ (Jacobs et al., 1980) which is considered to be the site of pheromone identification. Pre-copulatory patterns include pawing the ground and snorting, chinrestingon the cow’s rump just before mounting and then copulation. Copulation is short (seconds) comparedwith horses and pigs (minutes).
Social ranking of bulls can influence their sexual activity, the most dominant animals mating the most.Chenoweth (1981) has written a useful review of libido and mating behaviour in bulls and other species.
The female becomes hyperactive when oestrus begins and the number of indiscriminate agonistic interactions and mounting attempts increase (Schein and Fohrman, 1955). A subjective measure of the intensity of oestrus from how ‘excitable’ a cow seems to be, can be designated as strong, medium or weak. Relative differences between breeds, ages and individuals can be fairly accurately rated (Hafez and Bouisson, 1975).
Castrated males (steers, bullocks) may display similar sexual behaviour as intact/complete males (e.g.mounting); the lack of androgens inhibits actual mating/copulation. After male cattle are castrated, erections are the last aspect of male sexual behaviour to be lost (Hafez, 2000).
Female sexual behaviour depends on ‘the circulating endocrine balance’, controlled by ovarian secretions, primarily oestrogen (Hafez, 2000).
As cows become sexually receptive they may mount or be mounted by other cows, sniff males orbecome involved in mock fighting. Cows are receptive for approximately a day (Hafez, 2000).
The level of sexual behaviour displayed is determined by genetics, environmental factors, physiological factors, health and previous experience, e.g., bulls of dairy breeds are generally more sexually active than those of the beef breeds. New herd members attract greater sexual attention. Therefore, their introduction to a breeding group can be a useful means of stimulating sluggish bulls (Hafez, 2000).Testosterone and oestrogen enhance the libido of males and females respectively (Currie, 1995).Oestrous duration of cows is longer when there are many other cows in oestrus at the same time (King, 1990).The bull detects the pro-oestrous cow about 2 days before oestrus and remains in her general vicinity(Albright et al.,.1997).During the oestrus period the cow increases her frequency of urination so the bull can sample both theodours and the taste of her urine (Phillips, 1993).The period of sexual receptivity (mounting behaviour) ranges from 1 to 18 hours, with the average being about 4.4 hours (King, 1990).Bulls that are used for AI or hand-breeding may have poor semen quality or poor reproductive behaviour, due to the lack of stimulatory effects that result from the prolonged courtship (Houpt, 1998).Bulls commonly masturbate, especially at times of inactivity (Houpt, 1998).Mounting causes an immobilisation reflex (rigid stance) in the oestrous females that are being mounted (Albright et al., 1997).
Maternal-offspring behaviour
Suckling behaviour begins 2-5 hours after birth and the mother must be standing. The calf vigorously butts the mother’s udder with its head while suckling. It has been noted that heifers which had a difficult birth took longer to stand than cows who had already had several calves. Experienced cows usually stand within one minute of the birth of the calf (Edwards and Broom, 1982). The mother licks the young to stimulate breathing, circulation, urination and defecation. The cow is a ‘hider’ species so the young are hidden near the birth site straight after birth and the afterbirth is eaten, because it could attract predators.
Teat sucking by the calf is most intense soon after it stands up and it is common for suckling to occur first from a front teat (Edwards and Broom, 1982). The distance maintained between the cow and calf increases steadily with time after calving but they keep in contact by vocalising. Within the first week of life the calf begins to follow the cow, but for periods of the day, groups of calves will be found lying together for much of the day while the cows are grazing. It is in the period before calves are themselves grazing that ‘nurseries’ may form (Squires, 1981). There may be ‘guard’ cows left incharge and observations are reported from cows under extensive rangeland conditions. Fostering of calves is possible if a group of calves is placed with several nurse cows, but there is a large variation in the number of sucklings permitted by the cows (Kilgour, 1972).
A cow becomes restless 1–2 days before calving. If possible, she will leave the herd shortly before birth, finding a quiet place to calve. This is often not possible in most domestic contexts, so herd interference can occur at the birth, and bonding may be disrupted (Hafez, 2000).
If calves are removed from their mothers immediately after weaning, they can be pre-conditioned. Thisinvolves handling quietly, early castration and dehorning to accustom them to human handling, making them quieter to handle as they age. They will suffer less stress than cattle that have had less frequent human contact (Grandin, 1999). This is in comparison with calves that are left with their mothers and learn behaviours to avoid humans (NSW Feedlot manual, 1997).
Vision, olfactory and vocal senses are involved in cow and calf identification. Cows will groom their calves, ‘labelling’ them as their own (Hafez, 2000). Calves usually stand 45 minutes after birth, and are suckling 2–5 hours later; the mother aids suckling by positioning her body for easier access (Hafez, 2000). Between birth and 7 months, the mean duration of suckling time for calves was seen to be 34 minutes, with the suckling frequency being 4.5 times per day (Hattori et al., 1995). Weaning studies in Bos indicus have shown that heifer calves are weaned at 8 months of age, whereas bull calves are weaned at 11 months (Houpt, 1998).
Twins may receive less grooming than single calves (Hafez, 2000). Cows will lick the urogenital/rectal areas to stimulate urination and defecation (Hafez, 2000). Hormones regulate maternal behaviour (Currie, 1995).
At calving, cows should be allowed to seek isolation in a sheltered place, which will allow a dry and soft surface to lie on. Dairy calves should be licked by their mothers, but the duration must be controlled so that calves are able to suck (Lidfors, 1994).
The heritability of maternal behaviour is low in cattle (Houpt, 1998), so it is difficult for farmers to select for good mothering ability in bloodlines.
Contact between the cow and her calf for a period as brief as 5 minutes postpartum results in a strong specific maternal bond (Houpt, 1998).
Abnormal behaviours
- This may be due to the mother having suffered a long and difficult birth and not being able to stand up for suckling. The calf may also be too weak to suckle. Cases of mismothering are common with cows calving in synchrony in intensively managed maternity groups (Albright et al., 1997).
- Such cows behave like bulls, pawing and mounting but refuse to stand for mounting by other cows. It could be an inherited trait. Nymphomania is more common in high-producing dairy cows than in cows of beef breeds (Houpt, 1998). Nymphomania is usually associated with follicular cysts (Houpt, 1998).
- Buller-Steer Syndrome. This a common health and economic problem in feedlot operations (Ulbrich, 1981). The typical buller-steer sexually attracts his penmates who take turns following and mounting the abnormal animal. It does not seem to be associated with rank, and may be due to boredom. When detected, bullers are segregated and treated for injury or illness. Approximately 2% of steers in a feedlot situation are buller steers (Houpt, 1998).
- Illness/disease. Cattle that are not healthy will show abnormal behaviour. Healthy cattle will appear alert, stretch on rising and be vocal – they often vocalise in response to pain or stress (Grandin 2001). Unwell cattle often show little interest in their environment, have dull eyes, sluggish movement, poor grooming and poor appetite (NSW Feedlot manual, 1997). Other indicators of sickness include over-stretching of the neck, hunching the back, kicking the belly area (indicating abdominal pain), grinding teeth, star-gazing, etc. (Moran, 1993).
A typical sexual behaviour, such as nymphomania, homosexuality, hypersexuality, masturbatory behaviour, may be caused by genetic flaws, endocrine imbalances, management problems, and in many cases may be reversed (Hafez, 2000).
Masturbation in males is common, especially in bulls on a high protein diet (Hafez, 2000).
Humans may modify behaviour by processes such as castration, spaying and endocrine implants toincrease production and ease of handling (Currie, 1995).
Breeding-related Problems
Silent Heat:
Silent heat occurs most often in heifers during the first cycle. Physical signs of heat (eg, vaginal discharge, vulvar relaxation, and behavioral signs) are absent. Estrus detection methods can help identify cows in heat. In recent years, the use of freemartins and dogs for detection of estrus has gained popularity.
Nymphomania:
Increased sexual behavior occurs mainly in high-producing dairy cows that are 4–6 yr old and have had 1–3 calves. These cows usually mount other cows excessively, act like bulls, and have a significant decrease in milk production. In most cases nymphomania is associated with follicular cysts, and treatment with luteinizing hormone or chorionic gonadotropin is useful.
Masturbation:
Masturbation in bulls normally does not affect fertility. The bull will have a partial erection, arch its back, and perform pelvic thrusts. Because this does not lead to increased aggression or reduced fertility, no treatment is needed. Increases in exercise and stimulation can reduce the frequency.
Poor Libido:
Many diseases of bulls can lead to poor libido; therefore, the first step in managing impotence is excluding and treating possible diseases. Bulls with poor libido may refuse to mount, avoid estrous cows, and be unable to develop an erection. Behavioral causes for impotence include inexperience in young bulls that attempt breeding an aggressive cow, bulls that are used too frequently for semen collection, and the stress of a new environment. Using a new teaser bull or, preferably, a teaser cow in estrus can stimulate these bulls to breed. Allowing the bull to watch other bulls mounting may increase arousal. Food rewards (eg, molasses) may help as well. In many cases impotent bulls should be eliminated from breeding programs, or alternative ways of semen collection such as electroejaculation should be used.
Buller Steer:
Buller steers are steers mounted by others. This problem is seen in ~3% of feedlot steers and seems related to both hormonal and crowding factors. Steers are usually implanted with anabolic steroids, most commonly stilbesterol or estrogen, which can lead them to mount others. However, the level of these hormones in the buller is usually lower. In large, overcrowded groups of steers, the number of bullers is higher. This problem may also be related to dominance; the more dominant and aggressive steers mount others. Erection and intromission rarely occur. Both the buller and the mounting steer may fail to gain adequate weight because of psychological stress and increased activity. Removing the buller is the most common solution. Adding hiding places, placing overhead electric wires, providing sufficient food and water to avoid conflict, and painting odiferous material on the back of the buller also can help reduce incidence of this behavior.
Aggression
Aggression in cattle is usually a result of fear, learning, and hormonal state. Aggression between cows is worse than that between bulls. Horned cattle will bunt (push or strike with the horns) and strike an opponent on the side. Polled cows will use their head as a battering ram. Two cows can fight for a long period with resting periods in between. Each cow will rest while pushing its muzzle between the udder and hindquarter of the other cow to immobilize it. Aggression toward people usually includes bunting, kicking, and crushing. Aggressive and dangerous animals should be culled.
Aggression in Bulls:
Bulls are notorious for their unpredictable aggression. Some bulls may mount others, and these may respond with aggression. Such fights can end with serious injuries and even death, especially if the bulls are horned. Dairy bulls are commonly more aggressive (and also larger and heavier) than beef bulls. The bull may paw and dig in the ground, and horned bulls may kneel on the front legs and dig using their horns. Because hand-reared bulls are more aggressive toward other bulls, it is thought that inadequate socialization may contribute to this behavior. Aggressive bulls should be separated from others and perhaps culled if dangerous to people.
Kicking:
Kicking is mainly a problem in beef cattle and is seen most commonly in heifers. Beef cattle are not selectively bred for gentleness and are handled minimally. These animals can be dangerous when placed in pens or cages for examination and may cause severe injuries. Such animals should be handled carefully and potentially sedated. Food rewards can be offered for calm behaviors.
Nursing-related Behaviors
Intersuckling:
Non-nutritional suckling is a common problem in calves; the suckling calf will suck on other calves or the cow on any available appendage or skin tag. This can lead to skin irritation and even umbilical hernias (if the suckling calf suckles on the umbilical sheath of another calf). Poor nutrition may influence development of this behavior (increasing roughage can minimize the problem). Penning or isolating suckling calves does not solve the problem; the calf will continue to suckle on buckets or engage in self-suckling. The problem is more common in calves weaned after 6 days of age. Non-nutritional suckling occurs mostly after feeding; providing dry teats next to the feeding area can help reduce incidence of this behavior. Other ways to minimize this behavior include placing a serrated nose ring in the suckling calf, applying repellent materials to suckled areas, and fitting a muzzle. These may prevent suckling but do not reduce the motivation to do so, and calf welfare should be considered.
Cross-fostering:
In some cases, it is necessary to cross-foster a calf. Dairy cows are more likely to refuse a new or unfamiliar calf than beef cows. Bonding between the cow and calf is based on fetal fluid and visual cues; therefore, covering the new calf with drapes soaked with amniotic fluid or the skin of the cow’s own dead calf or blindfolding the cow can help. Encouraging the cow with food rewards can also help.
Miscellaneous Behavior Problems
Reluctance to Enter the Milking Parlor:
Reluctance to enter the milking parlor is a problem related mainly to management. When dairy cows accustomed to milking with simultaneous feeding in a stanchion barn are moved to free stalls and are not fed when milked, they may refuse to enter the parlor. Previous negative experience (eg, mastitis, aberrant electric shock, punishment from the handler) can also play a role. In addition, changing the side from which the cow is normally milked can increase anxiety and even aggression. Providing more grain feeding, a calm environment, and possibly a preferred cow “mate” can help minimize the problem. Similar problems can arise with the introduction of electric squeeze gates.
Food Throwing:
The underlying cause of food throwing is not well understood. The affected animal grabs food with its mouth and throws it on its back. One possible explanation is maintenance behavior that is meant to reduce biting flies in the presence of docked tails. The diet mixture may also play a role; the problem is seen more commonly in cattle fed a total mixed ration.
Tongue Rolling:
Tongue rolling occurs mainly in veal cattle and is most likely a stereotypic behavior resulting from confinement. The affected calf flicks its tongue outside and rolls it back inside the mouth, followed by swallowing saliva. One study showed that veal calves that displayed tongue rolling had no abomasal ulcers, while those that did not show this behavior had ulcers. This may indicate that the behavior reduces stress. However, calves that showed tongue rolling as well as those that did not had abomasal erosions. Increasing stimulation (eg, adding sucking teats) may reduce incidence of this behavior.
COMPILED & EDITED BY-DR. S.RAWAT,DEHRADUN
REFERENCE-ON REQUEST.
https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/animal-behavior-its-important-to-understand/
