Livestock Health Management Practices in India
Dipankar Hazarika, Jnyanashree Saikia and T.J. Ramesha
Agriculture forms prime income source for the regional farming communities, while livestock sector act as secondary agriculture that supports good income source for small and marginal farmers of the district. As majority of farmer’s rear animals under traditional system, there is high risk of outbreak of several diseases that in turn results in poor production and productivity of livestock.
There are several diseases that affect the livestock and causes decrease in production and productivity in the sector. In this chapters some important Viral, Bacterial and Parasitic diseases which commonly affect the livestock are discussed below.
Viral Diseases:
- Foot- and- Mouth Disease (FMD): Foot and mouth is a contagious viral disease occurring in all cloven footed animals.FMD is rarely a fatal, except in case of very young animals, which may die without showing any Dairy cattle are the most severely affected, showing a fall in milk yield, abortion, sterility etc. Incubation period of the disease is usually 3 to 8 days.
In the beginning of the disease, it is characterized by formation of vesicular lesions, followed by erosions of epithelium of the mouth, noses, muzzle, feet, teats and udder. In early stage, a rise in temperature is noticed and the animal is dull and off its food, sudden drop in milk yield. Blisters formation, usually within a few hairs, most frequently on the upper surface of tongue, pain in feet, separations of hoof at the junction of coronary hoof border is also marked. If the mouth is examined, in early stages, blisters on the dental pad inside the lips, and sometimes on the muzzle, will be found, as well as there on the upper surface of the tongue.
Preventive Measures:
- Mouth lesions should be washed with alum solution, or a potassium Lesions of the legs may be washed with phenyl. If the lesions are affected with maggot, oil turpentine or dressol in swab application may kill the maggot.
- Milk for human use from affected cows should be boiled before use.
- Regular vaccination of animals with proper vaccine and doase.
Vaccination Schedule :
Strains – O, C, A-22, Asia-1.
Dose – 3 ml S/C for cattle, buffaloes and calves 1 ml S/C for sheep, goat
Primary vaccination – 4 months of age.
Booster vaccination – 3 weeks after primary vaccine Re-vaccination – Every nine month after booster
2. Vesicular Stomatitis:
It is an infectious viral disease of bovines, horse and pig caused by Rhabdo virus. The virus is transmitted through some vector like flies, mosquitoes etc.
Incubation period is 24 to 48 hours.
The disease is not fatal. Lesions are found in the oral of tongue, dental pad; Fall in milk production.
Preventive Measures:
Antiseptic mouth wash with potassium permanganate dilute 1 in 1000
- Rabies: It is a highly fatal, infectious viral disease of mammals most often transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal. Transmission of rabies virus usually begins when infected saliva of a host is passed to an uninfected animal.
The disease occurs in furious and dumb form. In the furious form, increased nervousness, elevated body temperature and animal is excitable and attempts to bite everybody. There may be clamping of jaws, dribbling of saliva and in dogs number of barks changes into a definitely high tone bark.In dumb form there is increasing paralysis of limbs and a far in off look the eyes. Paralysis of jaw muscle, dribbling of saliva.
Clinical symptoms of sheep is very similar to that of cattle who suffer with incordination, axorixia, trembling, low production, salivation, grinding of teeth, hallowing, vocal cord paralysis. Affected goats are commonly aggressive, and continuous bleating is common. Mostly horses are lacking in distinctive nervous initially, but include to paralysis forum of disease.
Control Measures:
There is no treatment for rabies after symptoms of the disease appear. However, rabies vaccine that provides immunity to rabies when administered after an exposes (post-exposure prophylaxis) or for protection before an exposure occur (pre-exposure prophylaxis).
First vaccination is given at 3 months age, followed by booster after 1 month, then annually pre-exposure prophylaxis consists of three doses of rabies vaccine is given on days 0, 7 and 21 or 28. Booster should be given annually. In addition, after a bite of rabid animal, wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water, and apply antiseptic dressing.
4. Blue Tongue:
It is an infection viral disease of sheep but occasionally cattle and goat are affected. In cattle; the disease mostly remains subclinical form. The disease is characterized by high fever, catarrhal inflammation of the buccal neuron membrane and nasal mucous membrane; lameness due to inflammation of the coronary bands and sensitive laminae of the feet.Stress factors like lower place of nutritia, worm benden, inclement weather, fatigue due to transportation etc., have been found to be conducive factors for high susceptibility to infection.
Control Measures:
- There is no specific treatment after the symptoms occur, but antiseptic should be given through parenteral route to check secondary bacterial Localized lesions may be treated with topical antiseptic preparations.
- Prevents exposure to insect vectors by spraying repellents in animal at night and avoidance of low, marshy areas are recommended as prophylactic measure.
- Vaccination is the satisfactory method to control.
Bacterial Disease:
- Anthrax: Acute widespread infections disease of herbivorous animal (cattle and sheep) caused by bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Other animals like goats, horse, pig may get the This is a zoonotic disease and has occasionally recorded in dogs. This disease is also known as spleenic fever due to extensive enlargement of spleen.
Symptoms:
There is elevation of body temperature (1040 to 1080C). Animal refers to eat and there is development of bloat, muscular tremor, distressed breathing, extreme dyspnosa leads to mouth breathing. Oozing of blood from all the natural orifices. The blood used to contain significant number of anthrax bacilli. Death usually takes place within 48 hours.Subacute form characterized by oedema.In anthrax carcass decomposes rapidly with formation of gas and distension of abdomen. Blood is dark red or black in appeareance and does not clot rapidly. Due to lack of oxygen the blood is dark in colour. Animals that die suddenly with bloody discharges from mouth, nostrils, anus must be suspected to have died in anthax.
Control Measures:
- The anthrax infected carcasses should not be opened.
- The fodder from infected pasture should be destroyed and not to be given to the susceptible areas.
- The strict quarantine arrangement should be made in the anthrax prone areas
- Care should be taken to destroy the dead body by deep burial with lime.
- The adjacent areas of the dead and infected animals should be thoroughly disinfected by applying 3% per acetic acid or 10% caustic soda or 10% formalin 3% per acetic acid is considered as an efficient sporicide.
- Persons handling the anthrax infected animals should adopt adequate sanitary measure for their own safety.
2. Mastitis:
Mastitis, term which denote inflammatory condition of the udder. It is characterised by physical, chemical, microbiological changes in the milk include change in colour,change in consistency and presence of abnormally large number of leukocytes. It is recognised one of the most costly disease affecting dairy cows. All breeds of dairy cows, buffaloes,goats, sheep,pig, horse are susceptible. High yielding cows are more commonly affected than low yielders.Large no. of species of microorganisms are responsible as cause of mastitis.They are bacteria,fungus,mycoplasma and virus.
The affected animal shows a very high rise in temperature (106-1080 F),remain off fed. The udder is swollen and extremely painful. There is cessation of milk secretion and exudates are often blood stained. In acute form systemic reaction are not seen. Milk may be replaced by yellow or brown fluid with flakes or clots.Chronic mastitis is the terminal stage of disease. Udder becomes hard due to fibrosis. The supra mammary lymphnodes become palpable. The quarter may become thickened, firm, and nodular. Milk appears as yellowish fluid or white with clots and flakes.
Treatment:
- Isolation of the affected animal should be made from rest of the herd.
- Intra mammary antibiotic preparation should be used for local treatment
- Hot fomentation- Fomentation with magnesium sulphate is done to relief inflamation.
- Drugs used as intramammary infusion Pendistrin- SH(penicillin, streptomycin) Nefuran- Intramammary( Nitrofurazon, Furazolidine)
- Vaccines- An autogenousbacterin against aureous has been used when the infectious organism is highly antigenic. But, in general vaccination so far is of little value in controlling mastitis due to diversity of bacterial strains and their antigenic properties.
3. Black Quarter:
Acute infectious but not contagious disease of cattle,goat and sheep. The disease is characterized by developed of focal gangrenous and emphysematous myolitis. The disease produces severe toxaemia with a very rapid course and high mortality. Black quarter is caused by clostridium chauvoei. Cattle is the most susceptible host but the infection may spread to other animal due to traumatisation of the muscles.The incubation period is 2 to 5 days. In cattle, first symptom is a rise of temperature,which may be as high as 1060C or 1080 C. The appetite is lost and there is stiffness or lameness of the limb. Most commonly the lesions are located on the thigh, buttocks, shoulder, necks and more rarely in the intermandibular space or in the tongue. Swellings are hot and painful in the early stage and become cold and painless latter. The muscle tissues are swollen, dark in colour and turn dry. On pressure swelling emit crackling or crepitation sound due to emphysema.In sheep, there is extensive haemorrhagic oedema in the sub cutaneous tissues following a wound, Muscles of shoulder,thigh and neck are usually affected.Large crepitating swelling with most characteristics necropsy findings. Affected muscles are infiltrated with yellowish exudates was bubbles accumulate between the muscle fibres. Due to haemorrhage affected tissue turn black.Aromatid odour emanates from the muscle.
Treatment:
Satisfacory response has been reported from the use of penicillin, aureomycin and oxytetracycline.Penicilline is extensively used and considered as a drug of choice.
Control Measures:
- The dead body should be burnt or buried.
- The calf and sheep shouldnot be allowed to graze in endemic pasture.
- All the animals of the endemic zone should be vaccinated with suitable vaccine.
4. Haemorrhagic Septicaemia
It is an acute contagious disease of bovine caused by pasteurella multocida and pasteurella haemolytica. The term pasturellosis was referred to designate an acute septicaemia disease occurring most often in cattle, buffalo, camel, sheep, goat and pig.
Infection is mainly by ingestion of contaminants food, water etc. Infection may be introduced by introduction of carrier animals into the herd. Incubation period is 2 to 5 days. Onset of the disease is marked by high rise of temperature. There is dribbling of saliva, thick discharge and membrane became deep red. Swelling appears in the dewlap, in the throat between maxilla pulse rapid, respiratory distress, liquid stool mixed with mucous. In the region of head, neck and throat there is swelling due to sub coetaneous oedema consisting of gelatinous material. All the lymphatic glands are swollen and haemorrhagic. Muscles may be oedematous.
Disease can be diagnosed from the symptoms. Culturally the organism can be cultivated in blood agar from heart blood or from tissues.
Treatment:
Injection oxytetracyline or tetracyline 2mg per 1b body weight is highly effective.
Control Measures:
The effective control lies with institution of adequate management rational executions of vaccines and care in the transportation of animals. Adopt a programme of compulsory annual vaccination of all animals in areas, including those of livestock farms, to be carried out a month or two before the onset of monsoon.
All the bovines should be vaccinated before monsoon.
Parasitic Diseases :
- Fascioliosis– Fasciola gigantic and hepatica occur in buffalo, cattle, sheep and goat and are considered to be one of the most economically important parasites of Indian livestock. The developing young parasites move around in the tissues of the liver doing extensive damage before settling down in the bile ducts as adults. The infection produces inflammation, fibrosis, cirrhosis, blockage of the ducts etc. Secondary infection or concomitant infections are very common and apparently several pathogens already present become very active when liver fluke is also present.
Symptoms:
The animals becomes inactive and shows distended abdomen, ascites, anaemia, anorexia, diarrhoea, loss of weight.
Diagnosis:
Initially no clinical signs appear, but these may be similar to those to other helminthic infections. The faeces should be examined for the presence of eggs.The eggs have yellowish green colour as compared to the almost colourless eggs of amphistomes which they otherwise resemble. Several immunodiagnostic methods are also available.
Treatment :
- Carbon tetrachloride is still in use because of its efficacy and low cost, though it can be very toxic and even lethal. The dosage by oral route is 1- 5ml to sheep and goat, 5-10 ml to cattle and buffalo.
- Hexachloroethane is given as a single dose orally @ 175-200 mg/kg. It should be mixed with
- Albendazole are also
- Hexachlorophene is given @ 15-20 mg/kg either subcutaneously as oily mixture or
Control Measures :
It can be controlled in 3 ways 1. Prevention of infection
- Treatment of infected stock
- Control of wild mammals that serve as reservoir
Since the livestock acquires infection by eating the vegetation on which the metacercariae are present, the animals should be prevented from grazing low lying areas, as also on the banks of ponds and slow moving shallow rivers and streams.
- Ascariasis: Ascarid worm are very host specific. Different species of Ascaris affect the specific hosts like Ascaris swum-pig
Parascarisequorum-Horse, Zebra. Toxocaravitulorum– Buffalo and Cattle Tocaracanis-Dog and fox
Toxocaravitulorum is an important cause of mortality in buffalo calves. In pigs and horses the only route of infection is by ingestion of larvated eggs. As ascarid eggs are very resistant and can overcome winter .Pigs and horse may in the absence of good hygine become infected at all period of the year. In older animals no clinical signs are observed but infested animals continue to contaminate their surroundings and are important link in the chain of infection.
- vitulorum and T.canis are present in greatest number in the colostrums.So if the dam is not properly dewormed colostrums may be a potent source of infection to the calf and pups.
The clinical signs of ascariasis in pigs depend on the severity of the infection. Young pigs are mainly affected.Newborn pigs which heavily infected show signs of pneumonia, specially cough and exudates in the lungs. Heavy infections with adult worms produce diarrhoea and this having a marked effect on growth rate.The adult parasites in the intestines cause catarrhal enteritis which produces diarrhoea which may be foetid in odour and pale in colour.Important clinical sign of cattle and buffalo are diarrhoea and emaciation.Infected calves in their breathing emit butyric acid odour. In dog, affected animals are pot-bellied or the abdomen is tucked up.There is usually emaciation, anaemia,restlessness and diarrhoea or constipation. Diagnosis can be done from clinical signs or examination of faeces for presence of ascaris eggs.
Treatment:
- Piperazine compounds are widely used for the removal of ascarids in swine at the dose rate of 100-200mg/kg body
Control Measures:
- Thorough cleaning and disinfection of the maternity stall after each foaling.
- Frequent disposal of faeces from the stable is most important because this is the source of infection.
- Weakly removal of manure from the pasture.
- Drinking water and feeds should not be contaminated with faeces.
2. Amphistomiasis:
Amphistomiasis is an important pathological condition particularly of ruminants caused by migrating paramphistome flukes.Outbreak occurs more commonly in drier months,immediately after heavy rains or flood. All ages of cattle,sheep,goats and wild ruminants grazing near water or land liable to flooding may be affected but younger animals are more susceptible than the older ones, persistent foetiddiarrhoea,depression,dehydration and anorexia followed by sudden frequent death are the important clinical signs. Animals become very thirsty and drink frequently,submaxillary oedema and pale mucous membrane.
Treatment:
- Two doses of oxyclozanide 18.7 mg/kg body two days apart give consistent result against immature paramphistome in cattle.
- In areas where paramphistomes are regular problem, a treatment between the seasonal peaks in the availability of metacercariae will reduce the number of eggs falling on the pasture and hence minimise the opportunity for snails to become infected
- During an outbreak it is essential to remove animals from the infected Discourage grazing on green pasture surrounding tanks, ponds, pools and bank of river and the animal should be restricted on high lands particularly in amphistome prone areas.
- Tapeworm Infestation: Ruminants and horses are infested mainly by cestodes common tapeworm of ruminants are Monieziaexpansa, Monieziabenedine,Stileria hepatica. Animals get infected when they accidently swallow the infested mites while grazing the The mature tapeworms develop inside the primaryhost. Calves, kids, lambs below 6 months of age exhibit changes in the organs. Digestive disturbances including constipation, mild diarrhrea, dysentery.
Treatment:
- Praziquantel @ 75 mg/kg b. wt. is highly effective against Moniezia spp.
- Some benzimidazole compound such as albendazole, fenbendazole, mebendazole, oxbendazole are effective in ruminants.
- Number of the mites can be reduced by thorough ploughing of permanent pasture and residing.
Referrences:
https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/animal-health-good-dairy-farming-practicesan-indian-perspective/
- Disease of Bovines and their treatment – K. Bose, First Edition 1995, Second Edition 2000, ISBN 81-7663-536-7.
- A Text Book of Preventive Veterinary Medicine – Amalendu Chakraborty, Fifth Revised and Enlarge Edition, 2012, ISBN 978-93-272-2615-7.
https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/livestock/general-management-practices-of-livestock
