EMERGING MEAT BORNE ZOONOSES
Dr. Abadhut Dey1, Dr. Shubham Singha2, Dr. Mrinmoy Palui3, Dr. Avijit Bera4
1Subject Matter Specialist (Animal Husbandry), Ramkrishna Ashram Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nimpith Ashram-743338, South 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India
2Ph.D Scholar, Veterinary Gynaecology & Obstetrics Division, ICAR, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana-132001, India
3MVSc, Dept. of Animal Nutrition, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata-700037, West Bengal, India
4MVSc, Dept. of Livestock Products Technology, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata-700037, West Bengal, India
Introduction: A zoonosis is an infectious disease that has transmits from a non-human animal to humans. Zoonotic pathogens may be bacterial, fungal, viral, prionic or parasitic, or may involve unconventional agents (prion etc.) and can spread to humans through direct contact or through food (meat, milk etc.), water or the environment. They represent a major public health problem issues around the world due to our close relationship with animals in agriculture, as companions and in the natural environment. Zoonoses can also cause disruptions in the production and trade of animal products for food and other uses.Emerging zoonoses are defined as zoonotic diseases caused either by apparently new agents, or by previously known microorganisms, appearing in places or in species in which the disease was previously unknown. Zoonoses comprise a large percentage of all newly identified infectious diseases as well as many existing ones. Some diseases, such as HIV, begin as a zoonosis but later mutate into human-only strains. Other zoonoses can cause recurring disease outbreaks, such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis. Still others, such as the novel coronavirus that causes COVID-19, have the potential to cause global pandemics. Here we discussed about only Emerging zoonotic diseases.
Various Meat Borne Zoonoses
Meat Borne Prionic Diseases
These are a group of diseases caused by Prion, which are very significant in the field of public health, whether human public health or veterinary public health, that is commonly known as group of diseases Spongiform Encephalopathy. The most important prionic disease transmitted from cattle to human through cattle meat is the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (Mad – Cow Disease). The diseases that were discovered for the first time in Britain in November of 1986 and it had infected cows, sheep, cats, and monkeys.
The causative agent
The incubation period is usually very long, ranging between (2–8) years. Prions in infected cattle were found in brain tissues, and in the spinal cord, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, in addition to the intestine. Prion is infectious proteins that were previously called slow viruses (Slow Viruses), but they are similar to a virus in that they contain a protein and live and multiply inside the cell, taking into account that prions differ from viruses in that they do not have DNA in their composition or it may exist, but in small quantities. Prion, which causes mad cow disease, is characterized by It’s a superior ability to resist heat, disinfectants, and UV rays and high ability to resist freezing, drying, and cooking temperatures.
Occurrence of diseases
It occurs as a result of cows eating diets containing animal protein remains, including meat and bone meal, which carry the pathogens the carcasses of sick and dead animals to produce feed additives such as meat and bone meal. The preventive measures that have to be taken to facing the transmission of the disease to humans is to excluding and burning all animals that are proven to have the disease beside forbidding the use of mammalian meat and bones in feeding farm animals. At the same time all necessary health measures should be taken in red meat slaughterhouses, and emphasize the removal of animal waste and other wastes immediately after completion of the slaughtering and processing.
Meat Borne Viral Diseases
Several viruses can cause foodborne illness, including meat and meat products. The most significant viruses transmitted to humans via foods comprise noroviruses, rotaviruses, adenoviruses, sap viruses, and astroviruses.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type is most commonly transmitted by consuming water or food including meat and meat products contaminated by faeces from a person infected with hepatitis A.
Hepatitis B caused by an infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This type is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, containing the (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner or sharing razors with an infected person increase the risk of getting hepatitis B.
Hepatitis C is caused by an infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). This type is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact. HCV is among the most common blood-borne viral infections in some countries, like USA.
Hepatitis D (delta hepatitis) It is an infection with the hepatitis D virus (HDV). HDV is contracted through direct contact with infected blood. The hepatitis D virus cannot multiply without the presence of hepatitis B. It is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B infection.
Hepatitis E caused by infection through the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting faecal matter that contaminates the water supply. Cases of hepatitis E have been indicated in the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Central America.
Meat borne bacterial diseases
Because of the great health risks Red meats and white meat come from warm-blooded animals and, as such, their microbial flora is heterogeneous, consisting of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria. These bacteria include pathogenic species from the animal and birds themselves, as well as from the environment, together with bacterial species introduced during slaughter and processing of raw products. Most of these diseases are zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted to human beings, either directly or indirectly, and hence the meat and its products play an important role in transmitting these pathogens. Meat borne diseases are classified into meat borne infection and meat borne intoxication.
Meat borne infections
Meat borne infections are caused by the entrance of pathogenic bacteria contaminating meat and meat products into the body, and the reaction of the body tissues to their presence. Meat borne infections tend to have long incubation periods and are usually characterized by fever. Bacterial meat borne infections include the following important pathogens.
Campylobacteriosis
The incubation period ranges between 2 and 11 days with an average of 3–5 days. C. jejuni and C. coli causes illness characterized by fever; abdominal pain (abdominal pain is associated with backache and possible mortality); foul-smelling and watery diarrhea, which runs for 3–4 days, (diarrhea may sometimes contain blood and mucus in feces); vomiting; nausea; and abdominal complaints.
Escherichia coli foodborne infection
- coliis a common member of the normal flora of the large intestine. Six pathotypes of E. coliare now recognized.
Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC)
Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC) causes haemorrhagic colitis or haemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS).
Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC) causes a Shigella-like dysentery
EIEC strains cause illness that is characterized by watery diarrhea in most patients. Besides, there is a fever, nausea, and abdominal cramps.
Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC)
Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea [35]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that every year 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people) fall in sick and nearly 420,000 deaths occurs worldwide as a result of contaminated food consumption.
Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC)
Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC) is a cause of traveler’s diarrhea. ETEC are a pathogenic variant or pathovar of E. coli defined by production of diarrheagenic heat-labile (LT) and heat-stable (ST) enterotoxins.
Enteroaggregative E coli (EAgg EC)
Enteroaggregative E coli (EAgg EC) is primarily associated with persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries. Polluted food appears to be the main source of EAEC infection and has been associated in numerous foodborne outbreaks of diarrhea.
Enteroadherent E coli (EAEC)
Enteroadherent E coli (EAEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea and traveler’s diarrhea in Mexico and North Africa.
Listeria monocytogenes
Listeria monocytogenes is the only known species in the Listeria genus that concern for human health. It is Gm +ve bacteria, that is pathogenic to both humans and animals.
Salmonella species
Some of the important salmonella species involved in food poisoning include; S. typhimurium, S. infantis, S. dublin, S. enteritidis, S. softenburg, S. montevideo, S. virchow, and S. Newport. Factors associated with Salmonella meat poisoning outbreaks include; consumption of inadequately cooked or thawed meat or poultry, cross-contamination of meat and meat products from infected food handlers besides the possible presence of rats, cockroaches, flies, in the food environment that acts as vectors of the disease.
Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)
All strains of shigella possess potent exotoxins which are carbohydrate-lipid protein complexes. Any type of food including meat and meat products can transmit the shigella pathogens to cause disease in humans. Flies can spread Shigella germs when they get into contact with infected stool and then contaminate different types of food and drinking water. The illness begins 1 to 4 days after ingestion of bacteria and may last 4 to 7 days.
Vibriosis
Vibrio parahemolyticus
- parahemolyticusis a pathogenic bacterium, whose natural habitat is the sea. Human infections occur solely from seafood creatures such as oysters, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, clams, and related shellfish.
Vibrio vulnificus
- vulnificuscauses severe foodborne infection. V. vulnificusinfections can cause fever, nausea, myalgia, and abdominal cramps, 24–48 hours after eating contaminated food.
Vibrio cholera
Cholera is an infection of crowded poor class communities and it tends to persist in such areas. Human is the only natural host of the cholera. The spread of infection is from person-to-person, through contaminated water or foods. Shrimps and vegetables are the most frequent carriers. Cholera is typically categorized by the sudden onset of uncomplicated vomiting, which is seen frequently, but very rapid dehydration and hypovolemic shock, as well as copious watery diarrhoea. The frequent watery stools may be accompanied by small parts of the mucosa being liberated from the intestines.
Yersinia enterocolitica
- enterocoliticahas been isolated from different types of food, such as beef, lamb, seafood, pork, milk, vegetables, and vacuum-packed meat. Symptoms develop some days following ingestion of contaminated foods. It includes headache, fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and pharyngitis. Children appear to be more susceptible than adults.
Brucellosis
Brucellosis is a foodborne and professional zoonotic disease, caused by the bacterial genus Brucella. This infection has an extremely emerging and significant reemerging potentials in several countries. Brucellosis is a cosmopolitan bacterial zoonotic disease (caused by Brucella spp.) that affects humans and various species of the wild and domestic animals, principally food-producing animals, including cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, pigs, and reindeer.
Human brucellosis is a severely debilitating and disabling life-threatening disease. It is recognized by the clinical problems such as, the contribution of the interior organs, peripheral arthritis, bronchopneumonia, epididymitis, orchitis, hepatic abscesses, sacroiliitis, osteomyelitis, spondylitis, meningitis, encephalitis, cardiovascular complications, and prostatitis.
The transmission occurs through ingestion of polluted milk or meat and from mothers to breastfed babies. The transmission of Brucella also happens through mucous membranes or skin wounds, following direct contact with urine, vaginal discharges, blood, tissues, placenta, aborted fetuses, and through inhalation of airborne agents in an atmosphere.
Meat borne intoxications
These are diseases caused by the consumption of meat, meat products, and other types of foods containing the following toxicants.
Bio toxicants
Poisonous animals and Plants, which are found in tissues of certain animals and plants.
Toxic fishes
Types of intoxications associated with fish include ciguatera poisoning, tetraodon poisoning, and scombroid toxicity. They include puffers, triggerfish, and parrotfish.
Mollusca
Mollusca involved are oysters, mussels, and clams, which feed on dinoflagellates and planktons containing alkaloids making them toxic.
Poisonous mammals
Mammals are not commonly inherently poisonous, but secondary toxicity may affect many of them. The toxin may be of various types e.g. heavy metals, pesticides, toxic plants, therapeutics, fungal or bacterial toxins. Most human poisoning involves secondarily transfect toxins.
Metabolic products (toxins)
Metabolic products (toxins), which formed and excreted by microbes (Bacteria, Fungi, and Algae), while they multiply in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of human or in food.
Poisonous substances
Poisonous substances, which may be purposely or accidentally added to food during processing, production, transportation, or storage. In general, the food borne intoxications have short incubation Periods, from minutes to hours, and are characterized by a lack of fever. Food-borne intoxications can be classified into the following categories; Bacterial, Fungal and Chemical intoxications.
This is a type of meat-borne intoxication arising from ingestion of meat, meat products, and other types of food containing poisonous chemicals, such as heavy metals; Pesticides; insecticides; Herbicides; Fungicides. Chemicals also include Preservatives (Nitrites; antibiotics – penicillin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol or Radionuclides (cesium, strontium, radium, barium, lanthanum).
Bacterial meat borne intoxications
Bacillus cereus meat borne intoxication
Food poisoning caused by B. cereus is an acute intoxication that occurs when this bacterium produces toxins. B. cereus is considered a comparatively common cause of gastroenteritis globally. There are two types of gastrointestinal disorders caused by this bacterium.
Emetic toxin (ETE)
The emetic syndrome, due to ETE, is an intoxication that is caused by a single highly heat-, proteolysis-, acid- and alkali-resistant toxin, that is pre-formed when ingested, leading to a rapid onset of the syndrome.
Hemolysin BL (Hbl)
Bacillus cereus produces emetic toxin and several enterotoxins including non-hemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), cytolysin K (CytK), hemolysin II (HlyII), enterotoxin FM (EntFM), and enterotoxin T (bc-D-ENT) .
Cytotoxin K (CytK)
Emetic disorder
Characterized by vomiting, abdominal cramps, nausea, and occasionally diarrhea that occur 1–6 hrs after consumption of contaminated meat or other types of food.
Diarrhea disorder
Characterized by abdominal cramps, watery stool (copious diarrhoea), tenesmus rarely vomiting. These symptoms beginning 8 to 16 hrs after ingestion of contaminated food.
Clostridium perfringens meat borne intoxication
Clostridium meat borne intoxication is caused by the ingestion of food containing large numbers of vegetative cells of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens type A and some type C and D strains. C. perfringens multiply in the intestine and sporulate releasing C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE).
Clostridium botulinum meat borne intoxication
The danger of botulism has been the deciding factor in the formulation of food processing techniques, especially canned meat.
Staphylococcus aureus meat borne intoxication
Caused by the consumption of food including meat and meat products polluted with staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by confident strains of Staph. aureus while growing in different types of food. These enterotoxins are pH stable (insensitive to pH changes); as well as resistant to most proteolysis enzymes (pepsin, renin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin).
Meat borne protozoan diseases
Toxoplasma gondii
Human toxoplasmosis occurs from eating inadequately cooked meat, particularly mutton (lamb meat), pork, and venison (deer meat), or from drinking unpasteurized milk contaminated with Toxoplasma gondii. However, cooking meat (internal temperature about 70°C or 160°F) or freezing to around (−18°C or 0°F) should be able to destroy the protozoa. Eating food that was contaminated by knives, utensils, cutting boards, or other foods that had contact with raw, contaminated meat or shellfish is other possible way too.
Sarcocystosis
Humans become infected when they eat undercooked meat comprising these Sarcocystis. Bradyzoites are released from ruptured cysts in the small intestine and enter the lamina propria of the intestinal epithelium. There, they distinguish into macro- and microgametocytes. The Union of male and female gametes results in the creation of oocysts. Oocysts sporulate in the intestinal epithelium and are shed from the host in faeces.
Cryptosporidiosis
This protozoal diarrheal disease caused by Cryptosporidium. Both the protozoa and the disease are generally known as “Crypto.” The probable hazards from meat borne cryptosporidiosis come from ingesting raw and uncooked foods, particularly meat and meat products. The foodborne transmission has been stated following the consumption of certain foods, such as uncooked meat products, raw sausage, offal, chicken salad, and milk. as well as the significance of disease confirmed by some researchers.
Meat borne parasitic diseses
A) Taeniasis
Eating raw or undercooked contaminated beef or pork is the primary risk factor for acquiring taeniasis. So, one way to prevent taeniasis is to cook meat at safe temperatures.
B) Trichinellosis/trichinosis
It occurs when a human eating raw or undercooked meat from animals infected with the protozoa Trichinella. Meat that comprises infective Trichinella larvae; the acid in the stomach dissolves the hard covering of the cyst around the larvae and releases the worms.
C) Diphyllobothriasis
Humans got infections by eating raw or undercooked fish. Examples of fish include salmon, trout, perch, walleyed pike, and other species of freshwater fish. Some fish such as salmon live in both fresh and saltwater and can harbor Diphyllobothrium larvae.
D) Anisakiasis
Anisakiasis, or herring worm disease, is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes (worms) that attach to the wall of the esophagus, stomach, or intestine. Humans are accidentally infected when hosts are consumed either as raw or inadequately cooked or treated fish/shellfish meals. Therefore, the infection has been directly linked to eating habits.
E) Capillariasis
When humans ingest raw or undercooked infected fish, larvae may migrate to the intestine and mature into adult worms.
G) Opisthorchiasis
Liver flukes infect the liver, gallbladder, and bile duct in humans. While most infected persons do not show any symptoms, infections that last a long time can result in acute symptoms and critical disease.
H) Heterophyiasis
Heterophyiasis is caused by trematode parasites happening in regions where brackish water fish is ingested raw or under inadequately cooked circumstances.
Meat borne fungal diseases
Fungi are very common in food because it being ubiquitous. It can spoil large amounts of food and produce hazardoustoxins that threaten human health. However, yeasts and mould can grow in a large diversity of food including meat and meat products, which provide a favourable place for their growth. The most significant pathogenic fungi have been isolated from a wide range of foods include the following.
Aspergilli
Aspergillus contains some species with strains that are the most dangeHP, with Aspergillus fumigatus causing the most serious diseases.
Fusarium
Well-known Fusarium mycotoxins are fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and trichothecenes.
Mucor
Mucor contaminated food constitutes a limited potential health hazard concerning healthy consumers. No specific mycotoxin has been isolated and characterized in Mucor. The results of bioassays did indicate that toxins are present in extracts from certain Mucor species.
Mycotoxins
A) Aflatoxins (AFs)
The name AFs has been subsequent from the combination of “A” for the Aspergillus genus and “f” for the species flavus. AFs are greatly toxic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds, produced as secondary metabolites by fungi belonging to numerous Aspergillus species, chiefly A. flavus and A. parasiticus.
B) Fumonisins
It is the secondary metabolites of the Fusarium fungi mostly from Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum on pollute maize and milled maize portions or other processed products.
C) Ochratoxin a (OTA)
It is produced by Penicillium verrucosum in moderate environments and Aspergillus ochraceus and the rare Aspergillus carbonarius in warm and normally through storing.
D) Patulin (PAT)
Created by fungal species of the genera, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Byssochlamys, and the most significant Patulin (PAT) producer is Penicillium.
E) Zearalenone (ZEA)
Non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin formed by a diversity of Fusarium fungi in comfortable and warm countries.
Meat borne rickettsial diseases
Query fever (Q-fever)
Persons get sick by inhalation dust that has been polluted by infected animal milk, urine, faeces, and birth products that contain Coxiella burnetii. Individuals may get ill with Q fever by consuming contaminated, unpasteurized milk, and dairy products. Infrequently, Q fever has been spread through blood transfusion, from a pregnant woman to her foetus, or through sex.
Prevention and control
Prevention methods for zoonotic diseases differ for each pathogen; however, several practices are recognized as effective in reducing risk at the community and personal levels. Safe and appropriate guidelines for animal care in the agricultural sector help to reduce the potential for foodborne zoonotic disease outbreaks through foods such as meat, eggs, dairy or even some vegetables. Standards for clean drinking water and waste removal, as well as protections for surface water in the natural environment, are also important and effective. Education campaigns to promote hand washing after contact with animals and other behavioural adjustments can reduce community spread of zoonotic diseases when they occur. Antimicrobial resistance is a complicating factor in the control and prevention of zoonoses. The use of antibiotics in animals raised for food is widespread and increases the potential for drug-resistant strains of zoonotic pathogens capable of spreading quickly in animal and human populations.
Role of World Health Organization to prevent zoonotic diseases transmission
WHO works with various national governments, academia, non-governmental and philanthropic organizations, and regional and international partners to prevent and manage zoonotic threats and their public health, social and economic impacts. These efforts include fostering cross-sectoral collaboration at the human-animal-environment interface among the different relevant sectors at regional, national and international levels. WHO also works to develop capacity and promote practical, evidence-based and cost-effective tools and mechanisms for zoonoses prevention, surveillance and detection through reporting, epidemiological and laboratory investigation, risk assessment and control, and assisting countries in their implementation.
As part of the One Health approach, the World Health Organization collaborates with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) on the Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases (GLEWS). This joint system builds on the added value of combining and coordinating alert mechanisms of the three agencies to assist in early warning, prevention and control of animal disease threats, including zoonoses, through data sharing and risk assessment.
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