Achievements in Livestock and Poultry Production in Independent India

BN Tripathi¹, VK Saxena¹, Amrish Tyagi¹, BP Mishra², R Bhatta³, RN Chatterjee⁴, PK Rout¹ and T Dutt⁵

¹Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi

²ICAR-National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, Haryana

³ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition & Physiology, Bangalore, Karnataka

⁴ICAR-Directorate of Poultry Research, Hyderabad, Telangana

⁵ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh

Summary

Since independence, livestock production in India has improved significantly in terms of milk, meat and fiber (wool). The well-designed research programs and concerted scientific efforts have made it possible for animal sector to touch the new horizons. The development of high yielding crosses of different livestock species viz. cattle (4), sheep (5), pig (9), chicken (6), Japanese quail (6), Guinea fowl (3) and turkey (2) have played pivotal role in augmenting animal production. Molecular genetics approaches have helped in pathways analysis and identification of gene(s) related to production/disease resistance traits. Biotechnological interventions such as transgenesis, gene knock down using RNAi technology, gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9, etc. are opening new vistas of improving production and/or quality of products. The country-wide genetic selection and breeding programs under AICRP/ Network projects have increased the production of milk, egg, meat and fiber and helped in conservation of native germplasm. So far, 202 breeds, livestock (177), poultry (22) and dogs (3) have been gazette notified. Feed costs about 70% of animal production, therefore, in order to reduce the cost of animal feed, more than 30 alternative feed resources with appropriate supplementation level were identified along with intensifying the efforts for improving nutrient availability and feed efficiency. In order to mitigate methane production in ruminants, several products such as Harit- dhara, Tamarin plus, Avivatika, etc. were developed. Livestock products technologies have enriched the food basket with a wide range of products and so far about 66 products have been commercialized. The investigations have yielded vital genetic and management clues for climate resilience in animal production. Still, there exists a wide gap between demand and availability of animal products and feed resources.

1.  Introduction

Livestock is the integral part of Indian agrarian society. Livestock (including poultry) sector contribute directly through milk, meat, egg, wool and fiber production as well as provide employment to about 18.8% of the Indian population and livelihood to two-third of rural community. These animals have played crucial role in the evolution of crop cultigens and expansion of agriculture system by providing the draught power for agricultural works and contributing to the soil fertility. It is estimated that 30% of the total protein requirement for human-beings is derived from the animal husbandry. The poultry sector has undergone a paradigm shift in the structure and operation transforming from a mere backyard activity into a major commercial agri-based industry over a period of five decades. Animal husbandry is one of the fastest growing sectors contributing over 25.6% to Agri-GDP (gross domestic product) and 4.11% to overall GDP. India is the highest milk producer (198.4 million tons, Mt), 3^rd largest producer of eggs (114.5 b) and 6^th largest in poultry meat production (4.34 Mt) in the world. The current production of livestock and poultry has increased several folds in comparison to 1950-51 viz. 11.7 times in milk, 62.4 times in eggs, 1.33 times in wool and 4.62 times in meat (since 2000). Besides, with 14.16 Mt fish production in 2019- 20, India is the second largest fish producing country. Honey production in the year 2021 in India was 1.25 lakhs Mt. The milk group has greatest share (66.5%) in value of output of livestock at current price basis followed by the meat group (23.27%), whereas share of egg, wool & hair and hide & skin were 3.13%, 0.05% and 0.58%, respectively (BAHS 2020). The country has witnessed three revolutions; viz. white revolution for milk production in 1976-96; silver revolution for egg and poultry production in 2000, and red revolution for meat production in 1980-2008. In spite of spectacular growth in animal sector there exists a wide gap between demand and availability of meat and eggs in India. The present per- capita per annum availability of egg is 86, which is far below the ICMR recommendation of 180 eggs. Similarly, for meat per-capita per annum availability is 6.45 kg against the recommendation of ~11 kg meat per annum. The gap in demand and availability generate pressure on resources and demand intensification of R & D to augment productivity in order to alleviate hunger and malnutrition.

In the post-independence era, the scientific breakthroughs and technology interventions have played key role for continuous and sustainable growth in the livestock (Table 1) and poultry sector (Table 2). Development of high yielding livestock and poultry breeds, nutritional interventions and advanced reproductive technologies were instrumental in augmenting production and productivity in India. High density SNP chips were developed for future application in genomic selection in indigenous livestock and poultry. The government policies and schemes also supported the large-scale breeding and dissemination of the high yielding/ improved germplasms throughout the country. The feed technologies have also helped in reducing the cost of animal and poultry feed along with augmenting nutrient availability and improving the feed efficiency. A number of alternate feed resources, supplements and additives were identified and standardized for formulation of low-cost rations as well as for substitution of antibiotic growth promoters in feed. The feed formulations and practices were also standardized for mitigating methane emission and stress especially during summers. The assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) such as artificial insemination (AI), estrus synchronization, embryo transfer technology (ETT), ovum pick-up & in-vitro fertilization (OPU-IVF), and animal cloning were standardized and perfected for faster multiplication and maximum utilization of superior germplasm. The development of new generation vaccines diagnostics and drugs, and innovative surgical procedures have led to reduction in morbidity and mortality losses and thus enhancing the overall production from livestock and poultry species. The well- structured research programs of ICAR played pivotal role in technology driven progress in livestock sector in the country. During 1962 to 1999, ICAR established 19 research institutes in different parts of the country to address the research, innovation and technology requirement for improving animal health and production. Two major animal science institutes i.e., IVRI (1989) and NDRI (1923) were established in pre-independence era which now have the status of deemed universities.

Table 1. Milestones in livestock production

 

Year	Milestone
1971	AICRPs on buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and poultry initiated.
1985-87	Frieswal Project (1985) and AICRP on cattle (1987) launched.
1980-82	Karanswiss and Karanfries declared as high yielding crossbred cattle.
2008	Breed Registration process in India was initiated by ICAR-NBAGR, Karnal.
2009	Initial registration of 129 livestock and poultry populations as extant breeds.
2015	Registration of variety/lines initiated by ICAR-NBAGR, Karnal.
2017	Annual “Breed Conservation Award” by ICAR-NBAGR, Karnal initiated.
2019	Gazette Notification of AnGR initiated by DARE/ICAR, Govt. of India.
2016	Development of prolific Avishaan sheep for higher mutton production by ICAR- CSWRI, Avikanagar.
2016-18	Release of high yielding crossbred varieties of pig.
2019	Frieswal cattle was declared as breed.
2020	SNP chip for indigenous livestock & poultry developed by ICAR-NBAGR.
2021	Mission Zero Non-Descript AnGR of India initiated by ICAR-NBAGR.
1970	Urea treatment of poor-quality roughages specially straws.
1980	Feeding of bypass protein.
1990-95	Development of ‘Dag Cure’ for treating the Dagnala disease (Selenium toxicity).
1992	Feeding of protected (bypass) fat in high yielding animal.
1997-03	Development of the mineral mapping of the country.
2010-15	Development of nutraceuticals from agricultural wastes.
2010-15	Development of ‘Memnaprash’ a milk replacer for lambs/kids by ICAR-CSWRI, Avikanagar.
2015-17	Development of Feed block making machine.
2004	Network project on mitigation of methane emission.
2015-20	Development of anti-methanogenic product ‘Harit Dhara’ and ‘Tamarin Plus’ by ICAR-NAINP, Bangalore

Year	Milestone
2015-20	Development of an encapsulated Lactobacillus based formulation for the modulation of beneficial microbes in GIT in canine, cattle and buffaloes.
2015-20	Development of Lactobacillus based probiotic culture for neonatal health.
1939	First time Artificial Insemination performed in India.
1943	First buffalo calf through artificial insemination (AI) was born.
1987	The first embryo transfer calf in India was born in ICAR System.
2003-04	Development of a simple & cost effective device ‘Crystoscope’ for heat detection in dairy animals by ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar.
2009	Buffalo cloned for the first time in the world by Hand-guided cloning by ICAR-NDRI, Karnal.
2009-21	Production of cloned buffalo calves using different cells ICAR-NDRI, Karnal and ICAR-CIRB, Hisar.
2013-14	Foetal extractor developed for large ruminants.
2018	AI technology in goats using frozen semen was commercialized by ICAR-CIRG, Makhdoom.
2021	Preg-D- urine based early pregnancy detection kit for cattle and buffalo was released by ICAR-CIRB, Hisar.
2019-20	AI technique with reduced sperm count per dose in buffalo/cattle developed by ICAR- CIRB, Hisar.
2015	Launching of ‘Meat on Wheels’ by ICAR-NRC on Meat, Hyderabad.
2015	TTIs based meat quality indicator for temperature abuse during storage.
2016	FSSAI certification as National Referral Laboratory for ICAR-NRC on Meat, Hyderabad
2021	mRNA based method for species identification in animal by-products.
2021	Development of field level kits for species identification of pork.

 

Table 2. Milestones in poultry production

 

Year	Milestone
1962	Exotic poultry breeds imported to improve egg and broiler production.
1977-on- wards	High yielding layer and broiler strains developed and released by ICAR institutes/ SAUs.
1989-on- wards	Release of backyard chicken varieties.
2014	Mission on village poultry under AICRP (Poultry breeding).
2020	Conservation of chicken through PGC standardized.
2021	Transgenic chicken as bioreactor developed for production of therapeutics (Human interferon alpha 2b) in eggs.

2.  Animal genetic resources

India is a rich repository of animal genetic resources distributed widely over the diverse agro-climatic regions of the country with a total population of 536.76 million livestock and 851.81 million poultry (20^th livestock Census, 2019). The livestock wealth of India includes 193.46 million cattle, 109.85 million buffaloes, 148.88 million goats, 74.26 million sheep, 9.16 million pigs and other species like horses and ponies (3.42 lakhs), camels (2.52 lakhs), mules (0.8 lakhs), mules and donkeys (1.24 lakhs), yak (0.58 lakhs), mithun (3.86 lakhs). The avian species includes 807.89 million fowls, 33.51 million ducks, 10.41 million turkeys and other poultry. Globally, India possesses largest buffalo population (49%), second largest population of cattle and goat, 3^rd of sheep, 4^th of duck, 5^th of poultry and 6^th of camel. Farmers of marginal, small and semi-medium operational holdings (area less than 4 ha) own about 87.7% of the livestock.

2.1.  Characterization and registration of breeds

So far, 180 breeds of livestock (cattle 50, buffalo 19, goat 34, sheep 44, pig 10, horses/ ponies 7, donkey 3, camel 9, yak 1, dog 3) and 22 poultry (chicken 19, duck 2, geese 1 ) have been gazette notified.

Large proportion of non-descript animals of different species indicates that the characterization and inventorization of animal genetic resources of India is still incomplete. After establishment of National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources at Karnal by ICAR, phenotypic characterization of domestic animal diversity of India has been accelerated. A system of registration of livestock and poultry breeds was initiated by ICAR in 2008 with the initial registration of 129 livestock and poultry populations as extant breeds. A total 73 new breeds were registered from 2010 to 2021.

2.2.  Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources

Most remarkable achievement was revival of Krishna Valley cattle in Maharashtra and Karnataka states. The number of this cattle breed was reduced to only 400 when NBAGR initiated an in- situ conservation program and after 12 years of continuous efforts the number has increased to 10,000.

Conservation of Punganur cattle was taken up under National Agriculture Technology Project (NATP) by NBAGR, Karnal during 2000-2004 in collaboration with SVVU, Tirupati. For ex-situ conservation, semen doses and somatic cells are being cryo- conserved at National Gene Bank, NBAGR, Karnal and so far, semen doses of 24 breeds of cattle (163108), 12 breeds of buffalo (59,703), 5 breeds of goat (12584), one breed each of sheep (8375) and camel (928), 3 breeds of equine (1750) and a breed of yak (460), totaling to 227362 semen doses of 47 livestock breeds have been cryo-conserved.

3.  Genetic improvement of animal genetic resources

3.1.  Cattle

The crossbreeding of indigenous cattle breeds with exotic cattle breeds like Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Brown-Swiss was started in India as early as 1875. Subsequently, it was expanded into AICRP on cattle with five centers viz. IVRI, Izatnagar and CCS, Haryana used Hariana cattle; MPKVV, Rahuri and JNKVV Jabalpur used Gir; ANGRAU, Lam used Ongole as base foundation for crossbreeding programme. Karan Swiss and Karan Fries were developed at NDRI, Karnal, and Sunandini (Non-descript x Brown Swiss) was developed under Indo-Swiss project at Kerala. The prestigious “Frieswal Project” launched on 23^rd May 1985 by

Frieswal declared a breed on November 3, 2019

ICAR in collaboration with Military Farms with the objective to evolve a national milch cattle breed having 4000 kg milk with 4% butter-fat in a mature lactation of 300 days. The outcome of project was a stable cross “Frieswal” with 62.5% (HF) and 37.5% (Sahiwal) inheritance. IVRI, Izatnagar developed Vrindawani (Hariana x Brown Swiss x Jersey). Performance profiles of four crossbreds have been summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Performance of crossbred cattle developed at ICAR Institutes

 

Trait	Frieswal	Karanfries	Karanswiss	Vrindavani
Daily Yield (kg)	15.11± 0.06 (41.0 best yield in a day)	10.26±0.06 (46.5 best yield in a day)	8.9±0.2 (44.0 best yield in a day)	16.58±0.16 (35.0 best yield in a day)
300-d Lactation Yield (kg)	3628.00±12.32 (7000 highest MY)	3083.35±22.12 (6939 highest MY)	3316.0±82.0 (7096 highest MY)	3220±41 (7187 highest MY)
Average Fat %	3.9	4.2	4.52	4.30
Lactation Length (Days)	322.02 ± 0.78	320.52±2.26	328±80	337.73±2.29
Age at first calving (Days)	965.36 ± 2.18	1012.17±3.61	1038±5.6	1012±9.3
Service Period (Days)	119.76± 1.81	149.97	156	149±4.55
Dry Period (Days)	164.59± 2.17	197	170	99.65±5.75

 

Calving Interval (Days)

440.30± 2.12

402.04

404

425±4.87

3.1.  Sheep

Cape Merino, an exotic fine wool breed, was crossed with local breeds and 4000-5000 crossbred sheep were produced around Pune for superior quality wool production (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976). Nilgiri, a fine wool breed of sheep was evolved in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu. Crossbreeding of indigenous sheep with Romney Marsh was undertaken both in plains and hilly areas. Hisardale, a fine wool breed with about 75% exotic inheritance, was evolved by crossing of Bikaneri ewes with Merino rams at Government Livestock Farm at Hisar (Haryana Agriculture University, 1983). Kashmir Merino was evolved by crossing Gaddi, Bhakarwal, Rampur Bushair, Poochhi, Kamah and Gurez with Merino. Sheep breeding work under AICRP for fine wool was started in 1971 at CSWRI. The breeds involved were exotic fine-wool breeds- Soviet Merino and Rambouillet, and the indigenous breeds-Gaddi, Nali, Chokla, Patanwadi, Nilgiri and Bonpala. The new strains of sheep were named as Avivastra, Nali-synthetic, Chokla- synthetic, Nilgiri-synthetic, Patanwadi-synthetic and Gaddi-synthetic.

Crossbreeding to improve mutton production involved exotic mutton breeds- Dorest and Suffolk and indigenous breeds were Malpura, Sonadi, Muzzaffarnagari, Nellore, Mandya, Deccani and Madras Red. Avimaas (Mutton Synthetic) lambs attained 25 kg body weight at 130 days. Rambouillet was superior to other exotic breeds in crossbreeding experiments. Awassi was crossed with native Malpura sheep at CSWRI, Avikanagar in 1994; the crossbred (AM) exhibited improvement in body weight and feed efficiency.

3.1.1. Avishaan: A prolific sheep developed at ICAR-CSWRI

A crossbreeding scheme was started in 1997 to introgress the prolificacy gene FecB from small sized prolific sheep breed ‘Garole’ of Sunderban area of West Bengal into non-prolific large size mutton sheep breed ‘Malpura’ of Rajasthan and Garole x Malpura half-breds were produced with twinning percentage of 50%. The FecB gene carrier Garole x Malpura halfbreds males were backcrossed with Malpura dam to produce the GMM having 25% Garole and 75% Malpura inheritance. Later, in 2008, Patanwadi inheritance was introduced to increase the availability of milk to newly born

Avishaan ewes produced 46% more mutton compared to monotocus Malpura

lambs. In this crossbreeding programme, GMM having Fec^BB gene was used as sire and Patanwadi as a dam breed to produce triple indigenous breed cross with 12.5% Garole, 37.5% Malpura and 50% Patanwadi inheritance in which FecB gene has been introgressed successfully.

The high performing triple breed cross “Avishaan’’ was released by CSWRI on 4^th January,

Avishaan exhibited high prolificacy (74.4%), litter size (1.8) and annual lambing

(94.5%). Body weights at 3 and 6 months averaged 16.5 and 27.9 kg, respectively, with post weaning and adult survivability above 98% with FecB gene inheritance.

4.1.  Goat

Crossbreeding in goat with exotic breeds was started to increase milk, meat and mohair production. Exotic breeds such as Alpine, Saanen and Toggenberg were used for improved milk production and Angora for Mohair production. Alpine and Toggenberg were crossed with Sirohi for improving the milk and reproduction performance of the local breeds. Saanen breed showed better performance with both the indigenous breeds than Alpine. Saanen and Malabari cross showed an improvement of 128% in milk yield over Malabari. Saanen×Beetal crosses (75% exotic inheritance) were the best, showing 103.4% improvement over purebred Beetal (AICRP 1985). Alpine × Sirohi and Toggenburg × Sirohi exhibited higher lactation yield than Sirohi. Subsequently, it was observed that purebred selection was more effective than crossbreeding.

For improving growth and meat production, Jamunapari and Beetal were used as improver breeds to cross with Black Bengal, Assam local, Sirohi and Sangamneri. Beetal × Black Bengal cross performed better than Jamunapari × Black Bengal cross. The combining ability of four important indigenous breeds was analysed in the PL-480 project involving Jamunapari, Black Bengal, Barbari and Beetal breeds. Indian goat breeds do not produce mohair; however, crossbreeding of Sangamneri and Gaddi with Angora breed yielded mohair. Crossbreds with 87.5% exotic inheritances were found to be the best for mohair production under Indian conditions. However, crosses had higher mortality and mohair production was uneconomical (AICRP 1985).

Overall, the crossbreeding did not prove viable as the crossbred were not stable and could not sustain the production in subsequent generations. Majority of goat breeds and non- descript goats in India carry A, B, E and F alleles at αs1-casein locus. Allele A (0.68 to 1.00) and B (0.098 to 0.23), associated with better casein yield, had higher gene frequencies. Allele F was observed in Beetal, Marwari, Chegu and non-descript goats of MP in less than 1% of population. Furthermore, the null allele (β-CnO) of β- casein, which is associated with no synthesis of α-S2 casein protein having higher frequency in Norwegian goats and crossbreeding may result in inheritance of this allele into indigenous goat breeds. Alpine and Saanen goats from France showed αs1-cnE and αs1-cnF allele frequencies as 0.34 and 0.41, respectively. Togenburg, Appenzeller and Verzasca breeds of Switzerland had αs1- cnF frequency was 0.69, 0.44 and 0.62, respectively. Indian goats have higher frequency of A and B alleles indicating better allelic combination for the higher milk protein yield.

4.2.  Pig

Exotic breed pigs were imported in India in IV-five-year plan (1970-1971) with the launch of AICRP on pig and the main objective was studying the performance of purebred exotic pigs under existing managemental conditions and stabilizing their performance in different agro-climatic conditions of the country. Consequent to slow progress of genetic improvement in indigenous pigs and higher demand for pork, crossbreeding of native pigs with exotic boars gained momentum in different parts of the country. The ICAR-National Research Center on Pig and the centres of AICRP on Pig developed nine high yielding crossbred pig varieties suitable for different agro-climatic condition of the country as given below.

1. Rani (50% Hampshire: 50% Ghungroo) developed at NRC on Pig, Guwahati attains 75 kg body weight at slaughter (8 months) with 1.98 cm of back fat thickness with litter size 9-10.
2. Asha (50% Duroc:25% Ghngroo: 25% Hampshire) developed at NRC on Pig, Guwahati attains 80 kg lean pork at slaughter age of 8 months with 75 cm back fat thickness with litter size 8-9.
3. HD-K75 (Hampshire 75%; local 25%) developed at AAU Guwahati attain 74 kg body weight at slaughter age of 8 months with 58 cm of back fat thickness and litter size 8-9.
4. Jharsuk (50%Tamworth: 50% local pigs) developed at BAU, Ranchi attains 80 kg body weight at slaughter age (8-10 months) and litter size 8-12 with two farrowing/year.
5. Mannuthy White (75% Large White Yorkshire: 25% Desi) developed at KAU, Mannuthy attains 94 kg body weight at slaughter age (10 months) with 10 cm of back fat thickness and litter size 8-9.
6. Lumsniang (50% Niang Megha: 50% Hampshire) developed at ICAR-RC for NEH Region, Barapani attains 90-100 kg body weight at 12 months of age and litter size 8-9.
7. TANUVAS KPM Gold (75% Large White Yorkshire: 25% Desi) developed at TANUVAS, Chennai attains 80 to 85 kg body weight at 8 months with litter size 8-9.
8. SVVU-T17 (75% Large White Yorkshire: 25% Desi) developed at SVVU, Tirupati attains 85 kg body weight at slaughter age of 10 months with litter size 8-9.
9. Landlly (75% Landrace: 25% Gurrah) developed at ICAR-IVRI Izatnagar attains 85-95 Kg body weight at slaughter age (8 month) with litter size 7-9.

Average litter size at birth of crossbred varieties ranges from 8-10 compared to 5-6 in indigenous pigs. Average body weight at slaughter age (8 months) in indigenous pigs is 40-50 kg, whereas the crossbreds attain 75-90 kg at slaughter age. Assuming rearing of one indigenous sow with average litter size of 5.5 and average body weight of 45 kg/animal, a farmer can produce approximately 250 kg pork in one year and earn Rs 25000 by selling of pig @ Rs. 100 kg^-1 of pork. On the other hand, keeping improved crossbred sow with average litter size of 9.5 and average body weight of 75 kg/animal, a farmer produces about 700 kg pork and earn Rs. 70000 per year.

3.1.  Poultry

Poultry is one of the major sectors of agriculture in India. ICAR has pivotal role in shaping up both organized and un-organized poultry sectors through its research programmes including AICRP and Poultry seed projects and producing highly skilled manpower for manning the Indian poultry sector. Specialized breeding programmes have resulted in development of high yielding poultry strains, which have revolutionized the Indian poultry sector.

Both the ICAR Institutes along with AICRP Centres have developed many high yielding backyard chicken varieties such as Vanaraja, Gramapriya, Srinidhi, Janapriya, Vanashree, CARI-Shyama, CARI-Nirbhik, CARI-UPCARI, CARI- HITCARI, Pratapdhan, Kamrupa, Narmadanidhi, Jharshim, Himsamridhi, etc., for enhancing backyard poultry production in the country. These high yielding chicken varieties lay 130-140 eggs and attain 1.5 kg body weight at 12-14 weeks of age and are best suited for hot and humid climate. CARI-Nirbheek has been enlisted by the FAO as a bird suitable for backyard poultry. Some of these varieties are enlisted as Low Input Technologies (LIT) under National Livestock Mission (NLM). The Institutes / AICRP Centres also developed commercial layer varieties such as Krishilayer, ILI-80, ILM-90, ILR-90 and Atulya (290-315 eggs) and commercial broiler like B-77, CARIBRO-Dhanraja, CARIBRO-Vishal, IBL-80, IBB- 83, Krishibro, etc. (~2 kg at 7 weeks), for intensive/semi-intensive poultry production in the country. Standardized package of practices developed by the institutes together with the high yielding strains have contributed to spectacular growth rates in layer, broiler and backyard poultry production. Furthermore, the turkey and Japanese quail backyard population in India has increased by ~49% and 564% in 2019 (20^th Livestock Census) as compared to 2012 (19^th Livestock Census). Genetic improvement and popularization of the diversified poultry species such as duck, Japanese quail, turkey, Guinea fowl has also been undertaken. Every year, both the ICAR Institutes/ AICRP and Megaseed project centres are supplying >30 lakhs improved chicken germplasm including parents to the different stakeholder. During last 10 years, ICAR has supplied more than 2.5 crores of backyard chicken germplasm from which around 2 lakhs farmers every year across the country are benefitted. The estimated profit by the improved low input technology birds was found to be Rs. 883.70 lakhs in last five years.

3.  Genetic improvement of indigenous germplasm

3.1.  Cattle

The ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cattle (CIRC), Meerut has been implementing the Indigenous Breeds Project (IBP) under the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cattle for the conservation and genetic improvement of important indigenous cattle breeds of the country. Under the IBP, initially Hariana and Ongole breeds of cattle were undertaken for improvement. The genetic improvement of Ongole cattle was initiated in collaboration with Livestock Research Station at Lam under Shri Venketeshwara Veterinary University, Andhra Pradesh from 1988 to March 2014 and 73 bulls were evaluated through field progeny testing (FPT). Draft studies undertaken on Ongole animals indicated that draught power of Ongole varied from 0.60 to 0.72 HP. Genetic improvement of Hariana cattle was initiated in collaboration with the CCS Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar (1989 to 2009). Hariana bullocks had capacity to pull moderate load of 8 quintals for about 2 hours without any serious effect on the physiological status.

Since 2010, genetic improvements of Gir, Kankrej and Sahiwal breeds in their home tracts have been undertaken in IBP in collaboration with State Agricultural/Veterinary Universities and ICAR institutes. About 16500 Gir, 10500 Kankrej and 3400 Sahiwal cows from the farmers/Organized herds have been covered under the project and 5490, 2743 and 1003 improved female calves of respective breeds were produced. The elite females had average lactation yield of 3238, 3553 and 3393 kg in Gir, Kankrej and Sahiwal, respectively showing overall improvements in respective breeds as 36.73, 24.33 and 20.02%, during 2010 to 2020.

In 2018, ICAR-CIRC established a herd of Frieswal cow by selecting elite Frieswal cows as bull mother farm for the production of young male calves for testing in the Field Progeny Testing (FPT) Programme at four different centres with coordinating unit at CIRC, Meerut. The young bulls are reared at Bull Rearing Unit at Meerut for collection, storage and distribution of semen. The ranked bull semen was also used at the bull mother farm maintained at ICAR-NDRI, Karnal for the production of young bulls. The Field Progeny Testing programme resulted in an increase of average first lactation 305 days milk yield of the Frieswal progenies by 67.76% in KVASU, 41.95% in GADVASU, 12.41% in BAIF and 36.07% in GBPUA&T unit.

5.1.  Buffalo

Network Project on Buffalo Improvement (NPBI) was started by ICAR in the year 1993 with ICAR-CIRB Hisar as the coordinating unit. The main aim of this project was to ensure the sustained maintenance of nucleus herds as bull mother units and production of improved germplasm on large scale for use in buffalo improvement program by establishing linkages with institutions. Important breeds of buffaloes viz. Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Bhadawari, Jaffarabadi, Surti, Pandharpuri and Godavari were included under NPBI programme for their genetic improvement. The elite herd of breedable Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jaffarabadi, Bhadawari, and Surti buffaloes along with semen freezing laboratories were established under NPBI for the production of genetically superior young bulls of these breeds.

High genetic merit male and female calves of Murrah breed are being used for production of future elite parents at ICAR-CIRB, Hisar. So far, 19 sets of Murrah bulls had been tested under the NPBI. The performance of the nucleus herd has increased from 1820 kg/lactation in 1993 to 2586 kg in 2020 (42% increase). A total of 33 progeny tested bulls have been produced under the project with highest genetic superiority of 18.75%. The project has achieved reduction in age at first calving in Murrah buffalo by 8 months i.e., from 50.7 months in 1993 to 42.8 months in 2020, calving interval by 50 days and service period by 112 days.

Nili-Ravi and Bhadawari breed Centers are functioning as conservation and improvement units and Jaffarabadi and Surti breed Centers are concentrating on field progeny testing along with maintaining the elite herd for bull production and testing. So far 9 sets of the Nili-Ravi bulls have been progeny tested under the NPBI. The performance of Nili-Ravi Nucleus herd has been increased from 1885 kg during 2001-02 to 2679 kg during 2018-19 (42% increase in SLMY). A total of 10 progeny tested Nili-Ravi bulls have been produced under the project with highest genetic superiority of 25.07%. Calf mortality has been reduced from 13.2% to 3.3% in 2019-20. The performance of Jaffarabadi Nucleus herd has been increased from 1814 kg during 2001-02 to 2245 Kg during 2019-20 (24% increase in SLMY). Total 9 progeny tested Surti bulls have been produced under the project with highest genetic superiority of 19%. Significant reduction in AFC of Surti buffaloes has been recorded from 49.75 months in 2003-04 to 45.29 months in 2019-20. Performance of Bhadawari herd has increased from 1029 kg in 2003-04 to 1286 kg in 2019-20 (25% increase in SLMY).

4.1.  Sheep

An All India Coordinated Research Programme (AICRP) on sheep breeding was launched by the ICAR in 1971, which was later converted to Network project on Sheep Improvement and Mega Seed Sheep Project in 1990 with four farm-based units on four indigenous sheep breeds viz. Marwari, Muzzafarnagri, Deccani and Nellore; and two field units on Madras Red and Magra sheep. The growth traits since inception have remarkably improved to achieve body weight at 3 months which was earlier achieved at 6-month of age and the weight which was earlier achieved at 12 months is now achieved at 6-month age; thus, improving the mutton production, and reducing the marketable age as also the cost of rearing. Improvements in survivability and reproductive performance have also yielded extra lambs, thus yielding more mutton more return. Weight at birth was improved up to 28% (2.5 to 3.3 kg), at 6 months improved up to 86% (Malpura; 14.0 vs 26.0 kg) and at 12 months improved up to 65% (19 kg to 32 kg in Marwari sheep) since inception (1975 vs. 2020). The overall survivability (96%) and lambing % (88%) have improved by 22% and 20%, respectively since inception.

4.2.  Goat

All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Goat Improvement in 1971 was started with the main objective of improving the performance of goat for milk, meat and fiber (Pashmina) production in different parts of the country. Crossbreeding and selective breeding approaches have been undertaken to improve the productivity performance of goats. Selective breeding approach was undertaken to improve the performance of indigenous breeds in their home tract. This is being practiced at CIRG, Makhdoom for increasing the milk production in Jamunapari (63%) and Barbari goats (85.4%) since 1985.

Selection for growth is continuing in Barbari and Jamunapari goats at CIRG, Makhdoom since 1985. Feedlot kids attained 33.75±1.01 kg and 41.85±0.81 kg at 9 and 12 months of age, respectively. In Jamunapari goats there was increase in body weight at 12 months from 20.32 kg to 29.60 kg indicating an improvement of 45.67%. In Barbari goats an increase in body weights from 18.52 kg to 24.44 kg at 12 months with improvement of 31.96% over the years, was observed. The Pashmina yield varies from 78 g in first clip to 227 g in the third clip. Chegu and Changthangi goats showed an annual Pashmina production of 132 g and 214 g, respectively, with an average fiber diameter of 12.4 micron. Selection based on greasy fiber weight and fiber diameter combined into an index is likely to provide maximum genetic progress in improving Pashmina production.

The genetic trends obtained for weight at all ages were positive in Jamunapari goat (0.144 kg/year at 9 months of age and 0.199 kg/year at 12 months of age) (Rout et al. 2018). The genetic trend for birth weight was positive but almost constant in nature. There was an increase in mean milk yield of 0.25 kg/year, 0.70 kg/year and 0.72 kg/year at 90 days, 140 days and total milk yield, respectively, in Jamunapari goats (Rout et al. 2017).

 

Barbari Female	Jamunapari Male

 

5.1.  Pig

Out of 9.06 million of pigs in the country (Livestock Census, 2019), a larger proportion (78%) is indigenous and non-descript. They are smaller in size, well adapted to hot and humid climate and comparatively have better disease resistance. An AICRP on pig was started during IV Five Year Plan (1970-1971), initially with four Centres that increased to 16 centres covering 7 indigenous pig breeds. Recently, 6 centres of the Megaseed project were also included in the AICRP. At present, there are ten registered pig breeds in the country (Ghungroo, Niang Megha, Agonda Goan, Tenyi Vo, Nicobari, Doom, Zovawk, Gurrah, Mali and Purnia). Presently, conservation of these indigenous breeds is being done at the institute and AICRP centers by collecting superior, true-to-the-breed animals from their breeding tract and further propagating through selective breeding. Litter size at birth and weaning showed continuous improvement over the years. Growth rates and body weights at 32-weeks were also increased significantly. Litter size at weaning and weight at 8-months also showed an overall genetic gain of 7% to 15% in different indigenous breeds. However, genetic improvement of indigenous breeds through pure breed selection has been slow.

5.2 Poultry

AICRP on poultry breeding started in 1971, initially has two components i.e., poultry for egg and poultry for meat. Later, another component on rural poultry was added. Poultry for eggs had an objective to produce a strain cross layer with production target of 220 eggs (hen housed) in 500 days. Subsequently over the years, the target was revised to 235, 250, 270, 280, 290 and 300 eggs in 500 days/72 weeks of age with good egg size. In the XI plan the target was revised with the objective to evolve high yielding strains/strain crosses with average production performance of 305 eggs in 72 weeks (hen housed) and more than 52 g egg weight at 40 weeks of age. The poultry strains developed under AICRP have achieved the targets of annual egg production of more than 300 eggs with Athulya (ILM 90) had average annual production of 315 egg and CARI-Priya had an average of 301 eggs with better adaptability to tropical climate.

Poultry for Meat had initial target to produce a broiler weighing 1500 g at 10 weeks of age with an FCR of 1:2.5, which was later revised to 1200 g at 8 weeks of age. In the XI plan, the target was revised to evolve a commercial broiler with at least 1700 g body weight at 6 weeks or 2000 g at 7 weeks with feed efficiency of less than 2.0 and less than 5% mortality up to 5 weeks of age using conventional breeding. The targets were achieved as the CARIBRO-Dhanraja developed at ICAR-CARI attained 2100 g at 7 weeks with FCR of 1.7. The commercial cross IBL-80 developed at GADVASU, Ludhiana (erstwhile PAU) also attained 2.0 kg at 7 weeks.

5.1.  Camel

Camel is a multipurpose animal as it can be used for milk, meat, wool, transport, race, tourism, agricultural work, decoration for ceremonial functions, and camel dance for amusement. Though camel numbers have decreased however, retention of female population in higher numbers is likely due to rising interest of rearing camel for milk purpose. ICAR-NRC Camel established on 20^th Sept 1995 has taken an important initiative to establish camel milk as a human health adjuvant and camel as milch animal. Finally, combined efforts of NRCC and other government and non-government organizations have resulted in devising an operational standard for camel milk in November, 2016 by FSSAI and to recognise it in food category that promoted production and marketing of camel milk. The lactational yield of four camel breeds viz. Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, Mewari were 1223.45, 1284.66, 1802.35 and 1442.35 Kg, respectively. The lactation length in corresponding breeds were 338.18, 367.18, 435.67 and 367.71 days. The daily milk production average is estimated to be between 3-10 L during a lactation period of 12-18 months. The yield could increase to 20 L per day under improved feed, husbandry practice, water availability and veterinary care. Several value-added camel milk products have been developed to promote consumption of camel milk and milk-products. Annual fiber yield from an adult camel amounts to 840 g and its blending products with sheep wool have good market value. A model for camel eco-tourism has been developed at NRCC for promoting the camel.

5.2 Yaks

play multidimensional socio-cultural-economic role for the pastoral nomads, who rear yaks in high altitude Himalayan ranges, mainly for earning their nutritional and livelihood security. ICAR-NRC on yak established in 1989 works for conservation and improvement of yak for higher productivity and profitability in the country. The only breed of yak in India i.e., “Arunachali” was registered in 2018. The institute has developed

NRC on yak has the privilege to produce First ET calf of yak named “MISMO” which was born on 27th June 2005 and later, first yak calf born through OPU-IVF on 27th July 2017 was named “NORGYAL”

complete feed block, area specific mineral mixture and AI technology with frozen semen (average conception rate 65%) for sustained Yak production and rapid multiplication of superior germplasm. The first yak calf through AI was born on 7^th July, 2006 in the institute. Selection of superior yak bulls and their maximization through AI technology is being practiced. This technology has been propagated and frozen yak semen straws are regularly distributed to AH Departments of yak rearing states for genetic improvement and reduce inbreeding. The protocol for production of embryo through in-vitro fertilization (IVF) of octytes retrieved with ultrasound guided ovum pickup (OPU) technique in yak is a significant development towards conservation and multiplication of elite yak germplasm in the country. The protocol for induction and synchronization of oestrus in Yak “Ovsynch protocol” was developed. Fifty-one varieties of fodder species received from FAO were tested at different altitude and seed setting was found reasonable for Dactylis, Vicia and Agrostis spp; three varieties of Salix were found to be suitable in this region. Number of products from yak milk viz. Yak milk whey beverages, Cheese, Functional paneer, Flavoured Churkam, Yak Mozzarella etc. and carpets/wall hangings, foot mats, jackets and other garments have been developed at the institute.

5.1.  Mithun

Mithun (Bos frontalis) or “gayal” is a unique bovine species playing central role in improving livelihoods of indigenous tribes of NEH region and symbol of prestige for local tribes. It is the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. ICAR-National Research Centre (NRC) on Mithun, located at Medziphema, Nagaland, is the only Institute in the world fully dedicated to R&D and extension on this rare bovine. It is phylogenetically distinct from other Bos species: however based on phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial genome of mithun, it has been found that Gaur and mithun have common origin from an extinct Bos species.

ICAR- NRC on Mithun has sequenced the genome (~300 gb) and annotated it for evolutionary and genetic studies. First ETT calf named “BHARAT” was born on 27th March 2012 and second calf ‘PRITHVI’ on 11th May 2012. The first calf “MOHAN” was born from cryopreserved embryo on 12th May 2012.

 

Traditionally, mithun is being reared under a free-range forest-based ecosystem with almost zero input but having great liking for salt feeding. Mithun is mainly reared for meat purposes and often slaughtered for high-quality organic meat during marriage ceremonies, religious festivals etc., therefore popularly called as ‘Ceremonial Cattle’. Being low in fat, mithun meat is good for human health. The ideal age of slaughter is 4-5 years with dressing as 58-62%. Mithun can produce 1-1.5 kg/day of milk which is rich in fat (8-13 %), solids- not-fat (18-24%) and protein (5-7%). Mithun milk has higher unsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, Vitamin A, D and E, minerals (Ca and Mg) and lactoferrin compared to cattle and buffalo milk. Based on the calorific value, 1 kg of mithun milk is equal to 2 kg of cow milk. The institute developed area-specific mineral mixture, low-cost complete feed block and designed a salt dispenser for mithun. The AI technology and estrus synchronization protocol were developed multiplying superior germplasm. Value-added products from mithun milk were developed.

6.  Interventions for improving livestock and poultry

6.1.  Molecular and biotechnological interventions

Large volume of information has been generated on molecular genetic studies in different livestock and poultry species. A number of genes sequence data have been generated, submitted to NCBI database, accession numbers acquired and phylogenetic analyses carried out in livestock and poultry species. The population structure estimates using DNA marker such as RAPD, microsatellite, AFLP, SNP have been generated for inter and intra-population studies. Candidate genes associated with different performance traits like growth (Growth hormone, Growth hormone receptor, IGF-1, IGF-2, IGFBP, myostatin, TGFs, Ghrelin, lectin, etc.), milk production traits (Casein genes, beta-lactoglobulin, etc.) meat quality genes (calpains, calpstatin, myostatin, etc.), wool quality gene (keratin type I, keratin type II gene, etc.), immunocompetence genes (MHC genes, cytokines and chemokine genes, TLRs, Lysozyme, etc.) have been studied. Expression analysis of various genes and transcriptome analysis using microarray/RNA-seq in different tissues/ organs under different treatments and/or pathogenic challenges have been carried out to decipher the pathways and genetic milieu under different biological processes and/or disease disposition.

6.1.1. Transgenic chicken as bioreactor for production of human interferon alpha 2b in eggs

At ICAR-DPR, Hyderabad, the transgenic cassette was transferred to the chicken genome through sperm mediated gene transfer (SMGT) method. A total of 4 transgenic birds (2 female and 2 male birds) were produced, where the efficiency of production of transgenic birds has been 5.4%. Transgenic birds lay eggs containing human interferon alpha 2b. Around 40-50 mg human interferon alpha 2b was isolated from each egg. The interferon alpha was found to be glycosylated indicating the biological activity and also showed its antimicrobial activity in HEK293 cell culture.

6.1.1. Application of RNAi technology for augmenting body growth/egg quality

Knock down chicken was developed by silencing myostatin gene through RNAi. The body weight at 6 weeks of age was enhanced by 26.9% in knock down chicken (Bhattacharya et al. 2016). Further, to minimize cholesterol contents in egg and serum, RNAi approach was adopted to knock down Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACACA) and sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1 (SREBP1) genes. shRNA constructs were developed at ICAR-DPR, Hyderabad, which showed lower level of ACACA and SREBP1 protein in serum of the knock down birds. The inheritance of shRNA constructs was also analysed through back crossing. The serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were significantly lower by 26.8 and 31.3%, and 56.3 and 26.4%, respectively in ACACA and SREBP1 knock down birds compared to the control birds. The egg total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol content was significantly lower in both ACACA and SREBP1 knock down birds by 14.3 and 13.2%, and 10.3 and 13.6%, respectively compared to the control birds (Prasad et al. 2022).

6.1.2.  Genome edited Nicobari chicken developed by CRISPR/Cas improves egg production

Exon-1 and exon-2 of Inhibin alpha gene has been edited by CRISPR/Cas in Nicobari indigenous chicken breed. The efficiency of production of transgenic birds were 21.7 and 7.6% for exon-1 and exon-2, respectively while the efficiency of production of inhibin alpha edited birds was 13% for exon-1 fragment. The egg production upto 72 weeks of age was significantly higher by 95.3% in edited birds as compared to the control birds (250 vs 128 eggs). The number of pause days was lower in the edited birds as compared to the control birds (100.5 vs 224 days) indicating higher persistency of egg production in edited birds compared to that of control ones (0.7 vs 0.4 eggs/day). Internal egg quality parameters like Haugh unit and yolk colour index were higher by 19.8 and 17.5%, respectively in the edited birds compared to control.

6.1.3. Genomic Selection

National Bovine Genomic Centre (NBGC) at ICAR-NBAGR Karnal has been launched in 2017 for implementing genomic selection (GS) in indigenous cattle using high throughput sequencing data. The accuracy of genomic prediction in dairy cattle exceeds 0.8 for production traits and 0.7 for fertility, longevity, somatic cell count, and other traits. GS involves two steps i.e., firstly effect of each SNP marker is estimated in a reference population. Secondly, genomic breeding values (GEBV) of young animals are calculated by using marker information, and subsequently ranked for selection.

NBGC-IB, NBAGR Karnal has developed the HD-SNP chip for indigenous cattle (608K); Buffalo (603K); Backyard poultry (610K); Goat (605K) markers and; Medium Density DNA Chip of Camel (180K).

 

5.1.  Nutritional interventions

In livestock production system, feeds being the major input cost (70%), needs special attention and necessitates to manage the feed resources efficiently to sustain the present growth rate. The R&D in the area of Animal Nutritional and Feed technology also occupy the central place in the journey towards science led increase in animal production in independent India. With the growing demand for milk, meat and animal products the country is facing a shortage of 13.3%, 31.7% and 27.5% of dry fodder, green fodder and concentrate, respectively. Grasses from pastures, forest areas and wastelands/ fallow lands are the major sources of natural vegetation available for livestock feeding. There are four major types of grasslands in India viz. arid, semi-arid, sub-mountainous and temperate regions. Estimates of feed availability indicate that availability of feed resources in terms of dry fodder, green fodder and concentrates are 435, 920 and 57 million tons, respectively. Fodder crops are the plant species that are cultivated and harvested for feeding the animals in the form of forage (cut green and fed fresh), silage (preserved under anaerobic condition) and hay (dehydrated green fodder). The estimated potential availability of fodder on the basis of DM, CP and ME is 1,15.95, 148.17 and 1.058 million tons, respectively. The crop residues like straws, stovers, sugarcane tops, tubers and roots are the major feed resources for feeding of the Indian livestock across all ecosystems. At national level, of the total 718.57 million tons of dry matter available, crop residues account for 64.38 %.

Oil cakes and meals obtained as by-product after extraction of oil from oil seeds are valuable source of protein for livestock feeding. Major oil seed crops grown in India i.e., groundnut, rape and mustard, soybean, sesame, safflower, sunflower, castor, linseed, and niger utilized for feeding of livestock. Substantial quantities of about 4-5 million tons of unconventional cakes from castor seed, karanj seed, neem seed, jatropa seed, rubber seed, etc. are also potentially available. Fruits and vegetables wastes constitute another important animal feed resource but due to high moisture (80−90 %), high soluble sugars (6−64%) and crude protein (10−24%) contents they are highly perishable which restricts their full utilization. Molasses and sugarcane bagasse are the two major by-products of sugar industries. In India, only 10% of molasses is diverted to the animal feed industry for manufacturing the compounded livestock feed.

6.1.1. Balanced feeding for optimizing productivity of animals

Balanced feeding optimizes growth, milk yield, egg production, reproduction and prevent metabolic disorders and is required for assessing true genetic potential of the livestock and poultry. The feed requirements of livestock and poultry species at different ages, stages of production and physiological stages were formulated as total nutrient requirements by adding maintenance requirement according to body weight and lactation requirement as per milk yield. Dry matter intake at 2% of body weight and 1/3^rd of milk yield. Animals should be provided appropriate amount of mineral mixture supplementation and appropriate supplements and additives should be added for maintenance of rumen and animal health. The balanced ration yield about 30% extra profit through increase in milk production and optimized feeding.

7.1.1. Mineral mapping of India

Mineral mapping and prioritisation of most limiting minerals in different states/ regions has led to the formulation of area specific mineral mixture (ASMM). Further, for improving the bio availability of trace minerals, protocol for preparing chelate / organic minerals for zinc, copper and selenium have been developed and validated. State-wise mineral deficiency has been presented in Table 4.

Table 4. State-wise mineral deficiency

State	Mineral Deficiency	State	Mineral Deficiency
1.  Arunachal Pradesh	Na, K, Mg, Cu, Mn	11. Madhya Pradesh	P, Zn, Mn, Fe
2.  Assam	Ca, P, Mg, Cu	12. Rajasthan	Ca, P, Cu, Zn
3.  Sikkim	Ca, P, Cu, Mn	13. Gujarat	Ca, P, Zn
4.  Tripura	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn	14. Punjab	Ca, P, Cu, Zn
5.  West Bengal	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn	15. Haryana	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn
6.  Bihar	P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn	16. Himachal Pradesh	Ca, P, K, Cu, Zn
7.  Uttar Pradesh	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn, I	17. Maharashtra	Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe
8.  Uttaranchal	Ca, P, Cu, Co	18. Karnataka	Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn
9.  Tamil Nadu	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Co	19. Kerala	Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn
10. Odisha	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn	20. Andhra Pradesh	Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn

Source: ICAR-NIANP, Bengaluru

7.1.2. Alternate feed resources

Unconventional feeds such as neem seed cake, karanja seed cake, castor seed cake, sal seed meal, mahua seed cake, ambadi cake, mustard cake and cottonseed cake explored were found to have moderate to high protein content but have one or more anti-nutritional factors. Hence, suitable detoxification methods have been developed for processing such feeds to safely include at 5-10% level in the concentrate mixture of ruminant diets. Apart from these, several more such by-products such as ayurvedic herbal residues, areca sheath, sugar cane dry trash, sunflower heads, maize cob and sheath, groundnut haulms, fruit residues – apple, grape, mango, citrus fruit by-products, banana fruit by-product, pineapple fruit residue, jack fruit residue, etc. have been evaluated.

7.1.3. Alternative feed ingredients for broiler and layer chicken diets

More than 30 alternate agro-industrial feed resources have been evaluated for cost-efficient poultry feed formulation. Feed ingredients like bajra (pearl millet 50%), tannin-free jowar (sorghum, 50%) or korra (fox tail millet 60%) and ragi (finger millet 15%) may be replaced in commercial broiler and layer diets containing required levels of nutrients with net economic benefit. Quality protein maize (QPM) can be used as an effective alternative for conventional maize in both broiler and layer diets yielding better weight gain, egg production and feed efficiency. Soybean meal can be partially replaced with guar meal (upto 10% with Non-Starch Polysaccharide degrading enzymes), DDGS (rice origin upto 10%), sesame/til cake (upto 12%), double zero mustard cake (upto 18%) and detoxified karanj cake (upto 3 and 8% in broiler and layer diet, respectively) in the diet of broiler and layer chickens. The anti-nutritional factors, mycotoxins and residues in feed have also been effectively ameliorated. The overall economic impact of alternate feed resources was estimated to be Rs. 1750 crores.

The FCR in broilers was over 2.8 in 1970s which has been improved to 1.6 at present leading to an estimated cumulative saving of about 14 mmt poultry feed worth Rs. 250 billion. Similarly, the feed consumption/egg has been reduced by 7 g translating into a net saving of Rs. 10.5 b per year.

 

8.1.1.  Methane emission and mitigation strategies

Ruminants are one of the leading methane contributors among the different anthropogenic sources and on an average dispense 80-95 Tg methane every year due to ruminant enteric fermentation , globally and about 9 Tg in India as per 20^th livestock census (Livestock Census 2019). Enteric methane database for the prevailing feeding regimes in different states developed by ICAR-NIANP revealed that Buffalo and indigenous cattle contribute 45.1% and 31.4%, respectively, to the total methane pool from Indian livestock. Researches at ICAR institutes on ameliorative measures through dietary approaches has shown that it is possible to reduce the methane production by 10-20%.

Feeding interventions: Desirable reduction of 15-21% in enteric methane emission can be achieved by the feeding of more digestible feeds such as legumes, concentrate, grains, etc. Most promising results obtained at NDRI, Karnal by feeding balanced ration to the dairy animals under field condition has shown the reduction in methane emission by 10- 15% with subsequent increase of 10-12% in milk yield. Sea weed products also reduced methane emission by almost 15%.

Tree leaves and plant secondary metabolites: Many plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) such as tannins, saponin and essential oils have anti-methanogenic property (Bhatta et al. 2015, 2016). Tree leaves such as Moringa leaves, Neem leaves, Jack leaves and organic acids have shown promising results in reducing enteric methane. These interventions have reduced methane emission by 10-15% in growing and lactating animals. Ionophores in the dairy ration reduce methane emission in heifers and nitrous oxide emission from dung of dairy animals.

Alternate H₂ sinks: Use of salts containing sulphur is also capable of reducing methane emission from dairy animals to the tune of 12-15%.

8.1.2. Feed technology

For efficient use of feed resources, technologies such as fodder block, pellet making, extrusion, complete feed block (total mixed ration) have been developed at ICAR institutes and adopted by feed industries. These technologies have helped in improved nutrient utilisation besides aiding in ease of transportation and storage. For better protein and fat utilisation in rumen of dairy animals, bypass nutrient technologies have been developed. Technologies of formaldehyde treatment of oil cakes to improve bypass protein value and preparation of bypass fat with vegetable oil and calcium hydroxide have been adopted by the feed industries.

Use of exogenous enzymes and vitamins in animal feed: Several enzymes like phytase, cellulase, proteinase, etc. are being used to obtain more animal produce at cheaper cost. Supplementation of vitamin E can be useful against oxidative stress in periparturient dairy cows. Utilization of phytate phosphorus was increased in chicken gut through supplementation of microbial phytase (500 FYT kg^-1) or with surfeit levels of vitamin D3 (2400 to 3600 ICU kg^-1).

Area specific mineral mixture (ASMM) for dairy animals: ASMM technology is available for the formulation of mineral mixtures as per the recommendations of BIS for different species i.e., cattle, buffalo and goat to supplement major and trace minerals such as Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, I and Co, etc. There are two types of formulations of mineral mixture, one is with salt and the other is without salt, can be mixed in the concentrate mixture @ 2 kg/100 kg (without salt) and @ 3 kg/100 kg (with salt). It can also be supplemented @ 50 g/day/ adult animal mixed in feed or in water. Anionic mineral mixture developed at NDRI Karnal given to pregnant cows/buffaloes at least 3 weeks before parturition helped in meeting the increased demand of Ca and maintaining blood Ca. Vitamin E is additionally added to alleviate oxidative stress in periparturient dairy cows. Thus, supplementation of this special kind mineral mixture is effective for the prevention of hypocalcemia, minimizing the occurrence of milk fever and other metabolic disorders. Dose of 100 g/animal from 3-4 weeks before calving may be given along with concentrate feeds. Overall, 35% increase in profitability has been recorded through increase of 14% in milk production and 70% reduction in cases of milk fever by the use of Anionic mineral mixture.

Feeding strategies for enhancing functional/designer food production: The CLA content was increased by 300% in milk by dietary manipulation (Tyagi et al. 2007). Green fodder increases the CLA, vitamin A and E contents in goat milk (Tyagi et al. 2008). Buffaloes fed with mustard oil and cake in the diet enhanced 185% CLA in milk and milk products (Kathirvelan and Tyagi 2007). Supplementation of hen’s diet with a higher amount of Se resulted in production of Se enriched eggs for better human nutrition.

Gut microbiome and dietary probiotics and prebiotics: Subsequent to the studies conducted at ICAR institutes, novel supplements like probiotics, prebiotics, gut acidifiers, emulsifiers are being used for improving nutrient utilization in gut. It was also concluded that the incorporation of Mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) and Lactobacillus acidophilus in diet either individually or in combination as symbiotic was found to improve the performance in Murrah buffalo calves (Sharma et al. 2018). Gut microbiome of indigenously developed commercial broiler, backyard cross, and Kadaknath as well as Guinea fowl exhibited the higher proportion of bacterial moieties conferring disease resistance rather than growth or fat deposition (Saxena et al. 2015, Vineetha et al. 2016, Harshini 2021). Vinay (2019) concluded that faecal origin probiotics served as a potential candidate for augmenting neonatal gut health and designing probiotic consortium for Murrah buffalo calves.

Ameliorating mycotoxins in poultry diets: Toxic effects of aflatoxin (300 µg kg^-1) were alleviated by incorporating poly unsaturated fatty acid-rich vegetable oil, activated charcoal, ascorbic acid, liver tonic, etc. in broiler diet. Vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids (soybean or sunflower oil) could be used to completely alleviate aflatoxin in broiler diet. Dietary supplementation of Spirulina (0.02%), herbal vitamin C, MOS partially alleviated, while vegetable oil (3%) completely alleviated the ill effects of aflatoxicosis (300 ppb) in commercial broilers.

Make feed software: A window-based user-friendly software developed at CARI, Izatnagar for formulation of low-cost poultry ration using locally available feed ingredients. The software helps the feed manufacturer and poultry farmers for least cost ration preparation for poultry.

8.  Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ARTs)

The ARTs include several advanced reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination (AI), multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET), in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and sperm sexing. These technologies have brought significant genetic improvements and productivity of the animals. However, the application of these technologies in indigenous dairy cows has been relatively slow.

8.1.  Artificial Insemination (AI)

Tremendous progress has been achieved in semen cryopreservation and artificial insemination (AI) techniques that enable a single bull to be used simultaneously in several countries for up to 100,000 inseminations per year. The AI programme was first started in India at the Palace Dairy Farm, Mysore in the year 1939. In 1942, a Centre to study problems associated with AI was started at IVRI, Izatnagar and later on 4 regional stations were started at Bangalore, Kolkata, Patna and Montgomery (now in Pakistan). AI in buffalo gained importance in later years and the first buffalo calf was born through AI in 1943 at Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad. Presently, about 30% of the total breedable bovines are covered under the AI program. AI is currently used in breeding programs of ICAR, central and state govt farms and schemes of government. AI with frozen semen has also been standardized in Goat but in sheep it is practiced with refrigerated semen. In Pigs, AI with chilled semen is being practiced. Overall conception rate of AI is about 30-35%, which necessitates more intensified R&D efforts for improving the AI technology.

9.1.  Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET)

In this technique, genetic contributions of both the male and female are utilized simultaneously. The first embryo transfer calf in ICAR system was born in 1987 at ICAR- NDRI Karnal. ICAR-CIRC, Meerut, in a pilot study on MOET in cattle, initiated the embryo transfer technology at Military dairy farm, Meerut for multiplication of Sahiwal cattle. ICAR-NDRI Karnal and CIRC Meerut are working on augmenting production of indigenous livestock.

9.2.  Ovum Pick-up and in-vitro Fertilization (OPU-IVF) Technology

A technique for in-vitro embryo production (IVEP) has been developed for utilization of the indigenous cow oocyte / gamete pool for enhancing the maternal contribution to genetic improvement. Ovum Pick-Up (OPU) is the only means for collecting oocytes from live animals of known pedigree; further this technique also enables repeated collection of oocytes from live animals on a weekly or biweekly basis over a long period of time. When using in-vitro procedures, average rate of blastocyst formation is around 30-40% and calf production is 10-15%.

India’s first female Sahiwal calf named ‘Holi’ born through OPU- IVF in 2007 at ICAR-NDRI, Karnal

9.3.  Semen sexing

A total of 12 semen stations in different states viz. Gujarat, Haryana, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh have been established. The use of sex-sorted semen will not only enhance milk production but also crucial in limiting population of male cattle/ stray cattle. At parallel, ABS Technology (website genusabsindia.com) claims to make available sexed semen of Sahiwal, Gir and Red Sindhi bulls in India. The use of sexed semen of exotic breeds is becoming popular in states like Punjab, Haryana, Kerala and West Bengal. However, the high cost and poor pregnancy rates are the limiting factors.

9.4.  Animal cloning

A decade ago (2009), India created a history in the field of animal cloning research by the birth of world’s first cloned riverine buffalo using an economical and simple animal cloning technique called handmade cloning at ICAR-NDRI Karnal. Using simplified buffalo cloning technology, several cloned buffaloes were produced in the country using different types of somatic cells. The technology developed in India is less demanding
in terms of equipment, skill and time. At CIRB and NDRI, so far, 15 cloned bulls from superior males and one re-clone calf have been produced. The first cloned bull ‘Hisar Gaurav’ born in 2015 at CIRB, Hisar has already produced more than 15,000 doses of semen. These semen doses have been used both at CIRB as well as at farmers’ herds to produce 62 pregnancies which are growing normally, similar to progenies of bulls born conventionally. Also, the semen of these cloned bulls had fertility attributes equal to those of normal bulls.

10.1.  Other reproductive technologies/products

Early pregnancy diagnosis kit (Preg-D) for cow and buffalo: A Urine based test has been developed at ICAR-CIRB, Hisar which can detect pregnancy at farmers’ doorstep as early as 30 days after insemination.

Spermoscope: ICAR-CIRB, Hisar, developed and commercialized a handy and portable

field microscope- ‘Spermoscope’ for the evaluation of sperm motility in field conditions.

Low sperm count for AI: Standardized low dose up to 10 million sperms per straw without affecting fertility for semen of Sahiwal, Karan Fries and Murrah Bulls in field condition.

11.  Livestock products technology

Achievements of ICAR in Animal Products Technology research, education and capacity building since independence and their applications have played a vital role in accomplishing remarkable progress in augmenting milk, meat and egg yields and quality characteristics through breed improvement programs, nutrition and management programs; hygienic meat production and handling practices; extension of shelf life and microbial quality; value- added products; utilization of tough meat; economic formulations; byproducts utilization; human resource development etc. Technologies for meat speciation, cell-cultured meat and traceability have been initiated. Molecular tools like primers from mitochondrial D Loop gene (629 bp), mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for Goat (617 bp), 12SrRNA (322 bp) for pig and DNA biomarker (12 species) for species identification in meat samples were developed. Restructured meat products, functional products, and products with extended shelf life were developed. Formulations were standardized for ready-to-fry shelf stable meat- based snacks and ready-to-cook/ reconstitute dehydrated meat cubes. Ready to reconstitute instant soup mix from spent hen meat was developed. Several technologies on the efficient utilization of slaughter co-products were optimized and important products like heparin, insulin from buffalo pancreas, meat meals, quality lard, gelatin from bone and Neatsfoot Oil, deserted poultry sleeves etc. were developed. Studies on production and evaluation of multifunctional food ingredients from poultry by-products have been initiated and protein isolation protocol for chicken liver has been standardized. A strip-based indicator sensor was developed, which inside the packaged meat, changes its colour from yellow to blue upon deterioration in meat quality. Time Temperature Indicators (TTIs) based on the enzyme-substrate complex for monitoring meat quality and safety during temperature abuse in storage conditions was developed. The gender-specific primers from amelogenin (AMELX) and SRY genes were found effective in determining the sexes in indigenous cattle as well as in buffalo, sheep and goat. An innovative protocol for inactivation of Salmonella typhimurium (ST) on dressed chicken carcass which can be applied to dressed chicken carcass in actual processing conditions was developed at ICAR-CARI, Izatnagar.

Country’s first NABL accredited laboratory for Meat Species identification has been established as per ISO/IEC 17025:2017 at NRC on Meat. More than 400 samples have been tested for forensic evidence as well as for regulatory agencies. ICAR-NRC on Meat has been identified as a National Referral laboratory for quality analysis of meat and meat products by the FSSAI, GoI and has been identified as a Nodal Institute for Foods of Animal Origin under the Network for Scientific Cooperation for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition by FSSAI. ICAR-NRC on Meat has been granted copyright for first ‘Database’ for meat traceability in India. Meat on wheels– a mobile unit for the popularization of clean meat production and value-added meat processing was designed.

11.1.  Value addition to meat

A combination of meats such as mutton and chicken were evaluated to compliment desirable characteristics of one with the other to produce quality meat products such as sausages, kababs, patties, and nuggets. The incorporation of chicken meat and byproducts in mutton sausages and kababs resulted in better quality products with economic advantage. The demand for value-added meat products is growing steadily. The meat products could be classified as per the criteria like the extent of particle size reduction, degree of comminution and type of processing, etc. According to the 2021 economic census, food processing industries grew at an average annual rate of 9.99% for the five fiscal years ending in 2018-19, overtaking agriculture (growing at a rate of 3.12% per year) and manufacturing (growing at an annual rate of 8.25%). Frozen and chilled meat is being exported to more than 54 countries in the world and has crossed the value of Rs. 3500 crores.

11.2.  Traceability model for Indian buffalo meat industry

Farm-to-fork traceability in buffalo chain was successfully achieved by identification of animals using ear tagging, registration of farms and abattoirs, and systematic updating of information pertaining to animals, farm and abattoir in the traceability database being developed at NRC on meat. The traceability model developed showed that it is possible to maintain farm to fork traceability of buffalo meat by proper documentation of the system and regular update of the information.

11.3.  Technologies for value added meat products

Processing of meat or further processing is primarily done to add value to meat, provide variety and convenience to the consumers, provide employment, better utilization of low- value cuts and by-products from slaughterhouses, extend shelf-life, facilitate incorporation of non-meat ingredients, better marketing and distribution, better profit and scope for export.

Emulsion-based meat products: Emulsion is made by grinding or chopping the meat added with common salt (NaCl) to a fine meat homogenate forming the matrix in which fat is dispersed. Several products like nuggets, functional nuggets, sausages, meat balls, meat petties and croquettes are popular and marketed.

Enrobed products: Enrobing is the process of making “further processed products” by applying an edible coating, and it brings several advantages such as value addition, versatility to consumers, and improvement of nutritive value. The products like enrobed eggs and enrobed/ coated meat products are very popular.

Recipes for products: Recipes for restructured meat products and cured and smoked meat products, heritage products (like Kebbabs, curries, pickle, soups), shelf stable ready-to- eat meat products, fermented meat products and functional foods were standardized and commercialized.

12.1.  Innovative approaches in processing of poultry eggs

The innovative strategies entail improvements with inclusion of eggs and other nutrient rich ingredients through innovative egg processing techniques with focus to enhance the nutrient contents of the developed products and to enhance the storage stability under ambient storage. Development of innovative products includes value-added eggs products with cereals like raghi or millets, for blending the egg-based protein with cereals, for formulating nutrient enriched egg products. Such innovative approach can open newer avenues of utilizing eggs especially in summer season when egg prices are lower as well as for generating employment. Egg products like Japanese quail pickled egg, salted chicken egg, egg rasmalai, instant emu egg noodle, etc. have been developed and commercialized.

12.2.  Value-added dairy products and technologies

Indian dairy industry contributes around 23% of global milk production, with 35% level of processing and valued at Rs. 11356 billion in 2020, which is expected to grow at the rate of 15.4% during 2021-26. With changing scenario in demography, consumer preference for quality products; “Product diversification” is the key for long-term sustainability of industry.

Dairy Beverages as Healthy Drinks: With growing demand for pasteurized or UHT processed liquid milk, to fortify milk with micronutrients like calcium, iron, zinc, vit. A and vit. D without altering the organoleptic quality of fluid milk, the beverages like Flavoured milk or drink in combination with natural fruits juices or pulps, high milk protein drinks, fermented dairy beverages with unique microbial starter and herb-milk beverage have been developed. Likewise, whey a major by-product of dairy industry (1 Mt annually) containing 50% of milk nutrients is converted into beverages. The manufacturing technology can be adopted at small or industrial scale/start-ups without any newer addition to existing infrastructure. Hands-on-training imparted to entrepreneurs resulted in effective utilization of whey at small scale processing units.

Innovative Traditional Dairy Products (TDPs): These are important part of our religious ceremonies, festivals and occupy a prime position in the processed dairy products market. According to an estimate, about 30-35% of the milk is converted into TDPs the market size of which is three-time bigger than liquid milk and 100-200% value addition is achieved by converting raw milk into TDPs. However, TDPs manufactured at small and medium enterprises suffer from the problem of non-uniformity, poor shelf-life, higher calorific value, and lack of mechanization. Several dairy giants have ventured into the commercial production of TDPs with an aim to capture the market opportunities among the Indian diaspora globally. Long-life and convenient ready-to-make mixes for paneer, milk cake, rasmalai, basundi, kheer, payasam, kunda, have been developed for such enterprises. Considering the growing demand of ghee as cooking medium within the country and middle-east nations, technology for low cholesterol ghee and Arjuna herbal ghee is launched. Manufacturing technologies for several region-specific TDPs like chhanapodo, bhapadahi, mishtidoi, doda barfi, halwasan, and lalpeda etc. were standardized. The technology of convenience mixes including ready-to-make rasmalai mix, paladapaysam, kheer mohan and improved texture dahi were transferred to industry and start-ups.

Composite Dairy Foods-Fusion Trend: Health foods have been developed using judicious blends of milk/milk constituents and cereals/plant commodities, into convenient, long-life forms with proven health benefits to consumers. Therapeutic virtues of herbs are harnessed by suitably incorporating their bioactive-rich fractions in products like fermented milk, ghee, and sweets. Packages for milk-millet/coarse cereal-based composite dairy products in the form of weaning, complementary foods, beverages; smoothie, extruded snacks, gluten-free pasta and vermicelli mix, high fiber dairy desserts, etc. have been developed.

Probiotic Dairy Products as Immune Enhancer and Improving Gut Health: A collection of indigenous strains of probiotic organisms and a number of products namely; probiotic ricotta cheese, probiotic edam cheese, probiotic yogurt, probiotic composite oat beverage, and probiotic dried formulations have been developed at NDRI Karnal and several of cultures have been sold to companies that are conducting clinical trials for their validation of health benefit.

12.1.   Innovative and Novel Packaging Technologies for extended Shelf-life of Products

Several emerging packaging techniques such as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), active, intelligent, and bio-nano composite packaging in improving the packaging systems of dairy products and to extend their shelf life have been developed. Electrospun smart oxygen tags were developed for colorimetric detection of oxygen leak (up to 0.4%) into MAP trays of Mozzarella cheese. The electrospinning technique was adopted to develop PVOH-based dual antioxidant active wrapping material for Burfi. An industrial method has been developed for whey protein and iron based edible coating of Paneer for enhancing its nutritional quality. Milk protein-corn starch composite biodegradable films containing nano clay or nanocellulose were developed and used as sealing films for trays. An on-package colorimetric freshness indicators have been developed for Khoa, Sandesh, Dahi, and Milk- Millet complimentary food which change their color indicating freshness status to another distinguishing color to reflect product spoilage and supplement the “best before” or “expiry dates” printed on the package label. Among the active packaging ingredients are lysozyme, sorbic acid and silver-substituted zeolite which have been successfully incorporated in packaging materials to impart antimicrobial activity in food packaging.

13.1.  Meat microbiology and occupational hazards

Various foodborne pathogens namely, E. coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Listeria monocytogenes have been detected. Isolation and identification of Listeria from clinical (human and animal) and food samples (meat and meat products) revealed high prevalence of Listeria species. Samples from poultry production chain (comprising of poultry droppings, feed, water, meat and environment) were screened from poultry farm settings of Maharashtra, Kerala and Telangana for Escherichia coli and non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) spp. ICAR NRC on Meat and IVRI, Izatnagar have been working on occupational hazards among abattoir associated personnel namely, brucellosis, leptospirosis, Q fever, chlamydiosis and hepatitis E. Rapid serological assays have been developed for the detection of Q fever and listeriosis. The PCR based protocols for detection of Listeria monocytogenes and Coxiella burnetii from foods and clinical samples have been developed. An in-house designed i-ELISA was developed for serodiagnosis of chlamydiosis in humans. The ddPCR assay was developed for the detection of C. psittaci which was found to be suitable for screening the samples with a lower bacterial load.

13.2.  Climate resilient animal production

With a recorded increase in temperature by 0.2°C per decade, the IPCC (2021) predicted that the global average surface temperature would increase in between 1.8°C to 4.4°C by 2100. The air temperatures above 20-25°C in temperate climate and 25-37°C in tropical climate like in India, enhance heat gain beyond that lost from the body and induces heat stress (Das et al. 2016). The temperature-humidity index (THI) is commonly used to quantify the degree of heat stress on animals (Habeeb 2018). THI levels <70 is comfortable; 71-74, mild stress; 75-78, stressful; 79-85, severe stress and >86 is considered lethal to animals.

13.1.  Cattle and buffalo

The work carried at NDRI Karnal under NICRA project exhibited that seasonal variation in skin temperature, blood flow and a physiological function in Zebu and Karan-Fries (KF) cattle indicated the better adaptability of zebu during heat stress. The hair coat of animals plays a critical role in heat and moisture transfer from the skin surface to the surrounding environment to control body temperature. Thermal imaging of the cows revealed lateral surface and the dorsal surface of the body being more sensitive to heat stress than other part of body (rear surface, forehead and udder region). Tharparkar (TH) and Gir cows did not exhibit decline in milk yield up to 76 THI, beyond which the milk yield declined by 0.41 g/ day with every unit increase in THI score. Cortisol level increased during hot humid month (July-August) and was low in winter months. Overall, the seasonal variability affected the % fat in the order TH>GIR~SW(Sahiwal)>KF in the winter, and thermoneutral zone. Milk plasmin was increased significantly in the summer season in all the breeds. Green-house gas emissions were in the range of 563-757 kg CO2 print ranged from 1212-1583 m³/ton.

The peripheral blood leucocytes tanscriptomic signature of Tharparkar cattle carried out at NDRI, Karnal highlighted altered metabolic pathways under stress. Sahiwal also revealed 140 transcripts and down- regulation of 77 transcripts after heat stress. Expression studies on coat colour related genes (MC1R, PMEL, KIT and TRIP1) indicated that genes responsible for skin pigmentation were found to be highly expressed during winter followed by summer and spring in Tharparkar, Karan Fries and Murrah indicating the ability to protect from heat and UV-rays. Dermal fibroblasts play role in thermo-tolerance, and also revealed that skin of Tharparkar and Sahiwal are highly adapted to thermal stress than Karan-Fries and Murrah buffaloes. Frequency of sister chromatid exchange (SCEs) was higher in Tharparkar and Sahiwal of semi-arid region and Kankrej of arid zone. Significant effects of environmental condition were found on chromosome aberration and SCEs indicating their adaptability to the climatic conditions. The differential expression pattern of candidate genes like Neuobeachin (Nbea), Integrin Alpha-9 (ITGA9) and Thyroid hormone receptor interacting protein-11 (TRIP11) in Tharparkar compared to Karan Fries might have role in imparting better heat tolerance in Tharparker. Novel and conserved miRNAs in zebu (Tharparkar) and crossbred Karan-Fries (KF) cattle under heat stress were identified. Maternal hyperthermia was found to have a very crucial role in deciding the developmental competence of oocyte and subsequently results in poor quality embryos in Murrah.

Several nutritional supplements like chromium propionate, Vit C, Vit E, Se, Zn, Betain, etc. have been found helpful in ameliorating heat stress in animals. Dietary NDF level @ 15% above control (34.5% NDF) had significant effect on amelioration of heat stress in lactating Murrah buffaloes. Addition of molasses in feed of Sahiwal and Karan-Fries resulted in reduction of enteric methane emission which may be helpful in reduction of global warming. Different designs and materials for shelter construction have been suggested for livestock species.

13.1.  Goat

Physiological relevance of metabolomics as biomarker of thermal stress in lactating goats revealed that more than 50 metabolites were identified in goat milk, among which 15 metabolites varied significantly. Metabolites like L-Valine, Palmitic acid, Pentadecanoic acid, Hexanoic acid, Eicosanoic acid, 2,5 Dimethoxy-mandelic acid and Glycerol varied significantly in cold stress. Metabolites like Myristic acid, Heptadecanoic acid and 1,3 propanediol varied significantly in heat stress. Metabolites like 3 alpha mannopyranose, Maltose, D-Allofuranose, Ethanedioic acid, and 4-tert butoxy butanol varied significantly in thermoneutral temperature and can be used as potential biomarkers for thermal stress. In a multiparametric evaluation of climate resilience potential of goat breeds of southern India conducted at ICAR-NIANP established that Salem Black breed was found to be able to cope with heat stress challenges efficiently as compared to Osmanabadi and Malabari breeds. Similar experiments conducted on Bidri, Nandidurga, Kanni Adu and Kodi Adu goat breeds revealed that Kanni Adu, Kodi Adu and Bidri breeds are showing great promise. The results indicated that as compared to individual stress, combined (heat and nutritional) stress highly significantly influenced the productive and reproductive performance of Osmanabadi bucks. When the multiple stressors exposure prolonged for longer period, the animals compromise their productive function usually in the order of growth, reproductive and immune response. Thus, the multiple stressors may be more detrimental for the productive performance in these bucks under hot semi-arid environment. It was found that when nutrition is not a limiting factor then Osmanabadi bucks were able to better cope up with heat stress. The experimental data collected on heat stressed and control group of Osmanabadi, Malabari and Salem black goats each indicated significant alteration in the rumen bacterial community at all taxonomic levels across control and heat stress groups of all the three targeted breeds. Such information may help in identifying novel strategies to relieve the effect of heat stress by manipulating or altering the ruminal microbial composition.

The transcriptome analysis of PBMCs of two indigenous breeds i.e., Kadai Adu and Kodi Adu female goats of one-year age under heat stress for a period of 45 days clearly demonstrated the distinct transcriptomic signature for imparting thermo-tolerance in both Kanni Adu and Kodi Adu breeds. In addition, the study clearly demonstrated that HSF1, HSP70, GHR, THRA, FSHR, PRLR, TLR5, and IL18 genes could serve as ideal biomarkers for reflecting the climate resilient potential of indigenous goat breeds. The epigenetic alterations due to heat stress in Nandidurga and Bidri goats revealed less epigenetic (methylation) changes in Nandidurga breed as compared to Bidri breed. A simulated heat stress model for using in climate chambers to induce heat stress to simulate the natural heat stress was developed to study the influence of heat stress on various goat breeds. The climatograph of the breed origin was developed and accordingly thirty years cardinal weather data are programmed to develop this simulated heat stress model. The model was designed in such a way to induce heat stress as experienced by the breeds during grazing condition in their natural location. The average thirty years data of temperature and relative humidity of summer season (March-April) was programmed at hourly interval from 10.00 h to 16.00 h to depict the natural heat stress experienced by the grazing animals. Therefore, the simulated heat stress model could be of practical relevance as it simulates the natural climatic condition. Further, from ethical point of view also the simulated heat stress model offers better scope to study heat stress impact in farm animals (Sejian et al. 2019).

14.1.  Poultry

Heat stress causes serious losses in poultry production because it increases mortality and reduces performance of poultry. Several nutritional and managemental practices could not completely prevent the negative effect of heat stress. Introgressing some important major genes like Naked neck (Na), and Frizzle (F) into broiler germplasm may substantially improve the heat tolerance. Commercial broiler chickens exposed to cold stress (without brooding during first week of life) during winter season resulted in poor performance. The performance of broiler chicken was hampered due to heat stress whenever the THI exceeded the value of 75.0. The production performance of laying hens maintained at 29⁰C with THI of 82.47 in environment-controlled house facility performed better when compared to conventional poultry house. The use of water foggers for spraying water as fine droplets in open sided poultry house during summer season reduced the THI by 2.2 units with reduced egg breakage under semi-arid conditions. Performance and egg shell quality of egg laying chicken can be maintained during summer season by supplementing fiber hydrolyzing enzymes in diet. The three indigenously developed broilers viz. CARIBRO-Tropicana (Naked neck and Frizzle plumaged), CARIBRO-Mritunjai (Naked neck plumaged) and CARIBRO-Vishal (Normal plumaged) exposed to three different THIs (i.e., 72, 85 and 91) for 4 hours daily for 7 days exhibited that production traits declined whereas water consumption increased at higher THIs. Respiration rate, body temperature increased at higher THIs. Glucose and ACTH levels increased whereas Na and K declined at higher THIs. Heterophil content and H/L ratio increased whereas lymphocytes content declined at higher THIs. The mRNA expression analysis of HSP-70 in liver revealed higher expression levels at later days during the exposure trials indicated the phenomenon of stress memory and acquired thermotolerance. Among the three genetic groups, CARIBRO-Mritunjai exhibited highest averages for production traits as well as tolerated heat stress in a better way.

14.2.  Pre-conditioning and epigenetic thermal adaptation in poultry

Epigenetic temperature adaptation is based on the assumption that environmental factors especially ambient temperature has a strong influence on the determination of ‘set point’ for physiological control systems during “critical developmental phases” of embryonic development. Thermal regulation is regulated by alteration in cellular properties in frontal hypothalamus and this pathway is activated by Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). These alterations may be modulated by the epigenetic code that determines the repertoire of transcribed proteins. During 10-14 days of incubation a higher temperature (40°C) cycle of 4 h daily were given and the thermally preconditioned chick were exposed to THI 91 for 7 days at the age of 10 days. Thermally conditioned chicks exhibited better performance in terms of body weights, weight gains, feed intake and FCR as compared to control group on re-exposure to THI 91. BDNF gene expression in brain exhibited higher expression levels in thermally conditioned chicks as compared to control group. Approximately, 2-fold increase in DNA methylation was exhibited by thermally conditioned chicks in BDNF gene promoter over the control group chicks. Overall, the thermally conditioned chicks exhibited better performance.

ICAR-DPR has developed a customized electrolyte mixture containing potassium chloride (40.0%), sodium citrate (7.5%), sodium dihydrogen phosphate (2.0%), disodium hydrogen phosphate (2.0%) and sodium bicarbonate (48.5%) for supplementation through the broiler feed. The recommended dose is 1.0 kg t^-1 of feed and the cost of electrolyte mixture is Rs. 45 kg^-1. Dietary supplementation of Ashwagandha extract (0.75%), turmeric extract (0.1%) and Amla powder (1.0 %), Betain hydrochloride (0.2%), chromium @ 0.3 ppm improved the performance of birds by alleviating heat stress during summer season.

15.  Way forward

The conventional approaches have tremendously helped in augmenting animal production, however, several challenges are being faced viz. the animal populations are reaching to a state of genetic plateau resulting into lowered genetic gains, cost of feed and other resources are escalating due to various reasons, the increasing ambient temperature and weather changing patterns are resulting into stress causing various physiological and reproductive disorders, and the changing market formats and dynamic state of public likings necessitates for diversification and innovation in animal food products and value addition. This scenario dictates the need for discovering / inventing advanced tools and technologies and applying them for improving production and health of livestock species. The advanced tools such SNP chip based genomic selection is expected to increase efficiency of selection and augment the gains. The biotechnological approaches like gene editing, RNAi, transgenesis, etc. may help in augmenting the production and quality of products even beyond the physiological barriers. The artificial intelligence-based precision livestock farming for different species is expected to be the future of livestock farming. The ARTs such as ETT, OPU-IVF/IVEP, semen sexing and animal cloning will be improvised for easier and economic application at the field level. The feed technologies and innovations for improving FCR and alternate feed resources for cheaper feed formulation is an important researchable area. The diversification in products technology and value addition along with traceability-based quality assurance would help in meeting the market demands. The advancements in different areas may be converged with the conventional tools or the different advanced tools may be applied simultaneously as technology package for bringing improvement in quality and quantity of animal produce and products.

16.       Conclusion

Livestock sector has made phenomenal growth during the last eight decades with many-fold increase in production and productivity of livestock species, bringing India towards self- reliance in animal products as well increasing export potential of this sector. The concerted and interwoven R&D efforts across different disciplines of animal science have culminated into development of several innovative technologies and products, which have transformed the animal sector into industry such as dairy industry, poultry industry, feed industry, food processing and value addition industry, etc. The advanced tools and technologies are being used in different areas like animal production, health, reproduction, housing and management, livestock products development. Efforts are continuing for improving the performance of livestock and poultry through genetic and /or biotechnological interventions. Improved housing and nutritional interventions are helping in economic production with better animal welfare. The advanced reproductive technologies have tremendous potential in the faster multiplication of the superior germplasm as well as in the conservation of threatened breeds/species. Overall the R&D in animal science is striving for narrowing the gap between demand and availability with regards to animal products to alleviate the problems of malnutrition, thereby making country self-reliant besides expanding export potential in this sector.

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Published by:

Dr S.K. Malhotra, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan-I, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012 and designed & printed at M/s Dolphin Printo Graphics, 1E/18, Fourth Floor, Jhandewalan Extension, New Delhi 110 055.