ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE AND ITS IMPACT ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS
Antimicrobial resistance is a threat to global health, aggravated by the use of antimicrobials in livestock production. Mitigating the growing economic costs related to antimicrobial use in livestock production requires strong global coordination, and to that end policy makers can leverage global and national food animal trade policies, such as bans and user fees.
ANTIMICROBIAL Drugs are used to treat microbial infections. They can be grouped according to the type of microorganisms they primarily act against. E.g., antibiotics, antifungals, antiprotozoal, and antiviral drugs. AMR in microbes is defined as their unresponsiveness to standard doses of clinically relevant antimicrobial drugs. Broadly, it is the property of microbes that overpower the antagonistic effects of antibiotics, to which they were earlier sensitive, resulting in their survival despite exposure to standard doses of antimicrobial. Mechanisms for development of antimicrobial resistance are at large debatable. The gut bacteria inside 1000-year-old mummies have been are found to be resistant to most of today‘s antibiotics, even though these drugs were discovered within the last 100 years. As all these antibiotics are naturally produced, it is expected to find antibiotic genes in microbes to combat the antimicrobial for their survival. Even these genes existed before humans started deliberate use of antimicrobials, it is undoubtedly the overuse of these drugs in both livestock and humans which resulted to the ―SUPERBUG‖ and AMR became havoc all over the world. There are conflicting studies on relationship of emergence of AMR in bacteria of livestock origin and in those colonizing and causing infections in humans. E.g., Lazarus et al., 2015 have shown that some of human extra-intestinal expanded- spectrum cephalosporinresistant Escherichia coli originate from food- producing animals, with poultry as a probable source. Whereas, other recent studies suggest that most of the emergence of AMR in bacteria in humans originates from AMU in humans, while the majority of AMR bacteria in livestock originate from AMU in livestock. In addition, there is evidence of occurrence of AMR in foodstuffs of vegetables. Keeping aside these conflicts, in most cases, a positive correlation has been found between volume of antimicrobial consumption and status of AMR in the bacterial populations in both man and livestock. The following section discusses various drivers for AMR in animal production. 1. Use of antimicrobials for prophylaxis: as ―security‖ in addition to other management measures to reduce risk of animal disease: Resistance to sulphonamides, tetracycline and penicillins has been more commonly observed among chicken and swine bacterial isolates than from cattle. The obvious reason is more antimicrobial usage to control subclinical infections in poultry and swine because of intensive rearing system. 2. Antimicrobials as growth promoters: The use of antimicrobials as feed additives to promote growth in intensively raised animals has been found to be important mean by which gut microbiota of treated animals transfer and promote resistance within the animal and the environmental microbes. 3. Therapeutic use of antimicrobials: use of antimicrobials for treating individual/ group of animals, often without undertaking antimicrobial susceptibility testing, under-dosing and for incorrect duration. 4. Metaphylaxis: treatment of all animals within a group in which some individuals show signs of infection, common in poultry leading to unnecessary administration of antimicrobial in healthy animals, whereas, the infected animals may receive lesser than required dose. 5. Use of biocide: defined as chemical substance or microorganisms intended to destroy, deter, render harmless, or exert a controlling effect on any harmful organism by chemical or biological means. They are commonly used in human health-care systems besides agricultural settings. They may lead to emergence of AMR through cross-resistance, coresistance and clonal drift mechanisms, and by activating a stress response in bacteria leading to repair and integration of their DNA, which may include resistance genes.
Biocide use in the animal sector can be divided into two major categories:
a) disinfectants and antiseptics and b) animal feed preservatives. a. Disinfectants and antiseptics: e.g., Class 1 intergrons, mostly found as part of the Tn21 or Tn402 transposon family, identified as primary source of AMR gene and serve as reservoirs and exchanging platforms of resistance genes in Gram-ve bacteria. They contain a 5′ conserved segment (5′CS) and a 3′ conserved segment (3′CS); 3′CS includes qacEΔ1 which confers resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds. b. Animal feed preservatives and additives: Preservatives such as citric acid or sodium benzoate added to animal feed protect it against decay caused by microorganisms. Such organic acids may induce a selection pressure on gut bacteria of food-producing animals. Other additives like Sepiolite, used in animal feed improves absorption of nutrients by slowing down the passage of food through GIT. It promotes the horizontal transfer of resistance genes between bacteria, which is further enhanced by concomitant presence of AGPs, inspite of the it neither being an antimicrobial, nor having any antimicrobial activity. c. Heavy elements: Heavy metals derived from mining and industrial activities and also from agriculture and health care (e.g. mercury in dental amalgams) may be present in soil. AGPs used in livestock production can also contain heavy metals (e.g. copper, zinc), or medication (e.g. arsenic in coccidiostatics). They have been associated with reduction of susceptibility of bacterial populations in soil and commensal bacteria to antimicrobials and emergence and spread of AMR in environmental bacteria. 6. Other factors: Co-expression of stress and resistance genes under stressful conditions (like extreme temperatures and variations in osmotic pressure and pH), even in the absence of AMU has also been suggested. Lack of biodiversity in ecosystems; conditions apparently unrelated to antimicrobials like air pollution; may also encourage resistance of bacteria to antimicrobials.
ANTIMICROBIAL USAGE IN LIVESTOCK:
Global consumption of antimicrobials as estimated by Van Boeckel et al. (2015) in food animal production in 2010 is 63,151 (±1,560) tons and is projected to rise by 67%, to 105,596 (±3,605) tons, by 2030. In 2010, India with 3% share is one of the five countries with largest consumption of antimicrobials in food animal production with China leading at 23%, followed by the United States (13%) and Brazil (9%). About 66% increase in antimicrobial consumption in 2030 is projected to be due to increase in number of animals raised for food production, while other 34% (40% in Asia) is attributable to a shift in farming practices i.e., intensive farming. Antimicrobial consumption for animals in the BRICS countries (includes India) is expected to grow by 99% by 2030. Antimicrobials consumption in different type of livestock: The global antimicrobial consumption in pigs is highest followed by chickens and cattle. It is also suggested that in intensive chicken production, there is a wide range of intensity of antimicrobial use across countries. Geographical trends in antimicrobial consumption: according to the study by Van Boeckel et al. (2015), in South and Southeast Asia, antimicrobial consumption is highest in the southeast coast of China, Guangdong and Sichuan provinces, the Red River delta in Vietnam, the northern suburbs of Bangkok, and the south coast and the cities of Mumbai and Delhi of India. While, In the Americas, highest consumption was observed in the south of Brazil, the suburbs of Mexico City, and midwestern and southern United States, the Nile delta and the city of Johannesburg and its surrounding townships were the only notable regions of high antimicrobial consumption in Africa. In Asia, by 2030, antimicrobial consumption in chicken and pigs is expected to grow by 129% and 124%, respectively with 143% (312% for India) increase in the total acreage of areas where antimicrobial consumption is consumed more than 30 kg·km2 for chicken. Expansion of poultry sector in India is primarily responsible for the extreme growth in consumption of antimicrobials.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS:
International trade accounts for a good part of a country‘s gross domestic product. Due to increased growth of per capita income, population, and urbanization, leading to increased consumption of meat and dairy products in developing countries, world trade in livestock products is expanding rapidly. 80 percent of world animal product exports is controlled by industrialized countries; the remaining 20 percent being shared by developing countries. Trade in live animals: The most significant exporters among developing countries are Brazil (beef, poultry and pork), China (pork), Argentina (beef), and Thailand (poultry). Livestock exports are low in India due to export limiting transboundary animal diseases and under developed export infrastructure. India’s status in livestock trade: India‘s performance in livestock exports and imports has been highly encouraging with increase in export and sharp decline in imports during WTO postreform period. However, India‘s contribution in world trade of livestock products is insignificant, and therefore, it is not able to influence prices and supplies of livestock and livestock products. But, due to advantage of being one of the largest producers of many of the livestock products, along with trade liberalization policies, India has the prospects of enhancing its share in the global market. But, rising domestic consumption may prevent India enhance its exports of livestock products; bovine meat (most dominant component of the livestock products exported from India) could be an exception. The total imports of livestock products over the period 1980-2007 fell drastically from US$ 140 million in 1982 to US$ 13 million in 1994 amounting to US$ 22 million in 2007.
ROLE OF WTO:
The World Trade Organization is the international organization dealing with framing rules of trade between its member nations. Primary function of WTO is to ensure that trade is carried out smoothly, predictably and freely as much as possible. Article 20 of the WTO on General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) allows governments to act on trade in order to protect human, animal or plant life or health, provided they do not discriminate or use this as ‗disguised protectionism‘ i.e., impose unnecessary restrictions in the name of these provisions to avoid competition in their own country. There are two specific WTO agreements dealing with i) food safety and ‗animal and plant health and safety‘, and ii) product standards in general. Decisions are less likely to be challenged legally in the WTO, if a country applies international standards rather than setting its own standards. Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary measures (SPS) include all relevant laws, decrees, regulations and requirements related to food safety. SPS measures aims to prevent and entry, establishment or spread of pests or disease causing organisms so as to protect human, animal and plant life or health from risks arising from their entry; to protect human health and animal health from risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins that may be in ‗foods and beverages‘ and ‗feedstuffs‘, respectively. Each member WTO is required to develop SPS measures in line with international standards, guidelines and recommendations developed by i) OIE for animal health standards, ii) CODEX Alimentarius Commission for food safety standards and iii) International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) for plant health standards. The issues being raised in the WTO Committee on SPS measures include maximum levels for certain aflatoxins, maximum residue limits (MRLs) in animal products for imports into the European countries, and geographical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) risk assessment requirements maintained by the European countries, import requirements on meat and eggs maintained by Switzerland, etc. Food safety issues are assuming major concern in the export of food commodities from India, particularly to the developed countries. Progressively stricter food safety requirements, especially in major markets such as the EU, US and Japan are emerging as major challenges in the export of food commodities. To give a boost to livestock exports, compliance with various sanitary and phytosanitary measures should be taken up vigorously to ensure international hygiene standards and to harness the untapped potential of exporting to these developed countries. The emphasis on FSM is expected to increase further as a result of growing awareness about food safety, emerging diseases and increasing paying capacity of the consumers in both domestic and international markets. Food safety concerns may be explained by the fact that the food products refusal during April 2006-March-2007 accounted for 54 per cent and 97 per cent, of the total imports refusal by the US and Japan, respectively. Major reasons for refusal were unsafe additives and microbiological contamination.
INFLUENCE OF AMR ON TRADE:
A World Bank press release on September 20, 2016 warns that by 2050, drugresistant infections could cause global economic damage on par with 2008 financial crisis.
A study in USA during 2012-2016, consumer demand for meat raised without antibiotics (RWA) has grown by 25 percent over three years, despite an overall decrease in U.S. per capita meat consumption. Also, 72 per cent of consumers are very concerned or extremely concerned about the widespread use of antibiotics in food products, listing the fear of rising antibiotic resistance
European Union has banned non-therapeutic use of antibiotic use in animals empowering European commission to reserve specific antimicrobials for treating humans only, and ensure that imported food meets EU standards.
An analysis by the Southern Shrimp Alliance, US showed that in just five months, the number of antibiotic-related shrimp refusals from India had exceeded the total number of refusals from the country in 2015 by 14 per cent.
The above mentioned news items are some of the indicators of moving things related to trade in livestock and livestock products in response to AMR. Trade in livestock and livestock products is vulnerable to AMR impact not only because untreatable disease affects productivity, but also because a ―fear factor‖ typically provokes trade disruptions (such as bans on imports) in response to disease outbreaks. While, during peacetime, the threats due to microbial infections are underestimated and ignored mostly, during disease outbreaks, various governments, politicians, industry, and general citizens exhibit strong, spontaneous behavior and these behaviors generally overestimate the risks. These reactions eventually lead to sharp reduction and/ or disrupt economic activity between nations. Predominantly based on fear, such responses are especially likely to accompany outbreaks of drug-resistant diseases, because there will be no cure available. By 2050, International trade may be heavily affected due to AMR spread. In the lowAMR scenario, the volume of global real exports may fall below base-case values by 1.1 percent, whereas, in the high-AMR scenario, it can be as high as 3.8 percent; India being lower middleincome country will have to bear a loss of 4.4 percentage of GDP by 2050. AMR indirectly affects other trades as well, like tourism, especially medical tourism as was observed after publication related to NDM-1 in Lancet journal in 2008 which blamed medical tourism in India.
IMPACT OF AMR ON LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS:
Livestock and livestock products are significantly vulnerable to AMR impacts, both in terms of output and its trade. By 2050, in the high AMR-impact scenario, livestock production would decline the most in low-income countries, with a possible 11 percent loss. In livestock production, the impact will also be increased morbidity and mortality; together these lead to lower productivity, lower supply of livestock products (both domestically and for exports), and increased prices for major sources of protein, including meat, fish, eggs, and milk. Livestock production is a small part of the global economy (about 2 percent of world GDP), so its reduced productivity has a minor influence on the overall simulation results. The sector is relatively more important in the economies and exports of low- and lower middleincome countries than in wealthier countries, however. In addition, the sector plays a substantial development role and makes a major contribution to nutrition, especially for children and women of reproductive age. AMR will worsen animal health, as well as undermine the welfare of the animals‘ owners and others in the sector, both by increasing the variability of incomes because of more frequent and severe infections, and by reducing income levels as an increased disease burden becomes the ―new normal‖. Decline in livestock production will indirectly reduce exports what so ever in livestock and livestock products and also increase imports to meet the domestic requirement as low AMR countries with high income will be less affected (around 4%).
SUGGESTED MEASURES TO REDUCE AMR:
To avert the losses attributable to AMR, multi-sector approaches need to be adopted to reduce the level of AMR. Various parties at country level which need to gather together for cooperation include: 1. Government agencies: i) to formulate policies for regulation of use of various antimicrobials, ii) to implement various provisions effectively, not only on paper but also practically. 2. Research Institutions: i) to conduct nationwide surveillance on AMR in scientific and unified manner, ii) to bring out new drugs for treatment and prevention of infectious diseases, iii) To develop alternative models (incorporating vaccination, improvement in hygiene and nutrition etc.) for livestock production in cost effective manner without/ ‗only essential‘ use of antimicrobials, iv) Improvement in germplasm of livestock so as to naturally resist the infections. 3. Field veterinarians: i) Sensible use of antimicrobials that too only in required cases, ii) stringently adopting ‗withhold period‘ so that humans and others are not dosed with subtherapeutic levels of antimicrobials. 4. Extension workers: i) educating farmers about importance of hygiene, vaccine etc. in prevention and control of diseases. 5. Farmers: i) Seeking help from professionals in the event of infectious disease and in general about management of farms.
RECENT STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES TO REDUCE AMU IN LIVESTOCK:
European Union: in 2006, EU banned antimicrobials use as growth promoter. United States of America: between 2014 and 2016, FDA implemented a voluntary plan along with the pharmaceutical industry to gradually reduce the use of antimicrobials as growth promoters. All indications for growth promotion from veterinary products which have medically important antibiotics as an active ingredient were to be removed. The plan is not looked favourably by many because of loop-holes in it. China: In April 2018, the government has issued a statement that drugs use as feed additives will be totally withdrawn by 2020. India: In April 2017, India launched its National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR; 2017-21). The policy calls for a rapid standardization of guidelines regarding antibiotic use, banning or restricting the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in livestock. In September 2018, FSSAI launched a hygiene and cleanliness drive in the Indian meat industry through training, food safety audits, certification of animal feed. According to various news reports, India may soon impose a ban on colistin (an antibiotic of last resort) use in poultry feed as growth promoter. Vide a notification F. No. X. 11014/8/2019-DR issued on the 19th July, 2019, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has prohibited the manufacture, sale and distribution of the drug Colistin and its formulations for food producing animals, poultry, aqua farming and animal feed supplements. All these measures if adopted in its full sprit may yield some fruitful results and augment safe livestock production.
Compiled & Shared by- Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)
Image-Courtesy-Google
Reference-On Request.
