APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS TO ANIMAL BREEDING

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS TO ANIMAL BREEDING

Science and technology have made a major contribution to the transformation of agriculture both crop and animal. Most of the technological gains have been realized in the developed countries. The impact of most technological progress has, unfortunately, been more limited in developing countries. As a result, smallholder crop-livestock systems which support the large majority of the poor have remained much more reliant on the locally available knowledge and production techniques. Therefore, to address the emerging challenges posed by the rapidly growing human population and urbanization there is a need for the adoption and the use of advances in science and technology. This will enable smallholder systems to respond to the changing social, economic and environmental challenges. Recent advances in animal breeding, molecular biology, reproductive technologies and information and communication technologies, present unprecedented opportunities for livestock improvement in the developing countries. The field of animal breeding has witnessed a revolutionary transformation with the integration of biotechnological tools. These tools offer precise and innovative methods to enhance desirable traits, improve genetic diversity, and accelerate the progress of breeding programs. This article explores the diverse applications of biotechnological tools in animal breeding, ranging from traditional methods to cutting-edge technologies that hold the promise of shaping the future of livestock production.

Reproductive biotechnologies

Artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET) and semen sexing are some examples of reproductive biotechnologies. AI is the process of collecting sperm cells from a male animal and manually depositing them into the reproductive tract of a female. AI is the first reproductive technique that had a major impact on animal breeding schemes worldwide. In combination with pedigree registration and milk recording, AI offers the opportunity to obtain accurate estimates of breeding values of young bulls and results in a genetic progress that is much higher than natural mating. This is due to the high selection intensity and accuracy arising from AI since only the top bulls are selected for use in producing numerous offspring in many herds The main advantages of AI include increased efficiency of bull usage. This means the use of AI enables the production of a very large number of offspring from a single elite sire. Hence, it makes the maximum use of superior sires possible. For instance, natural service would probably limit the use of one bull to less than 100 matings per year. AI usage enabled one dairy sire to provide semen for more than 60.000 services. Moreover, AI reduces the danger of spreading infectious genital diseases. Time required to establish a reliable proof on young bulls is reduced through the use of AI. Other advantages include early detection of infertile bulls, use of old or crippled bulls and elimination of the dangers of handling unruly bulls. There are also a few disadvantages of AI, which can be overcome through proper management. A human detection of heat is required and thus the success or failure of AI depends on how well this task is performed. AI requires more labor, facilities and managerial skills than natural service. Proper implementation of AI requires special training, skill and practice. Utilization of few sires, as occurs with AI, can reduce the genetic base. Thus the AI industry and animal breeders should make every effort to sample as many young sires as possible. Artificial insemination is recognized as the best biotechnological technique for increasing reproductive capacity and it has received widespread application in large farm animals. It is widely used in most countries and the demand is growing. Embryo transfer is a hormonal manipulation of the reproductive cycle of the cow, inducing multiple ovulations, coupled with AI, embryo collection, and embryo transfer to obtain multiple offspring from genetically superior females, by transferring their embryos into recipients of lesser genetic merit. The high genetic merit embryos can be frozen for later transfer or sale. Most dairy farmers who use embryo transfer simply want more heifer calves from their best cows. In most cases the bull calves are more a nuisance to merchandise than an asset. The effect of this use of embryo transfer is to increase the selection intensity of dams to produce female herd replacements. In ET, an increase in reproductive rate of females offers the opportunity to reduce the number of dams that need to be selected for the next generation. At the same time, it leads to an increase in the amount of information available on sibs for estimating the breeding values (BV) of male as well as female selection candidates. Embryo transfer also allows superior females to have an effect on the genetic change. However, this technology has been only beneficial to cattle where the low reproductive rates and the long generation intervals make it economically viable. So far, ET has had some experimental and limited practical applications in most developing countries. Limitations in utilization of AI and ET are attributable to the absence of organized breeding schemes, poor infrastructure, and a lack of human and institutional capacity. The use of sexed semen alters the sex ratio in favor of either sex. It is a great advantage for the dairy industry for producing replacement heifers. The availability of sexed semen in dairy cattle has been eagerly anticipated for many years, and recent developments in fluorescence-activated cell sorting have brought this technology to commercial application. For a long time, the large-scale application has been hindered by slow process of semen sorting and the lower conception rates. Semen sexing provides the potential to increase the numbers of offspring of one sex in a closed population, thereby increasing the intensity of selection for that sex. Semen sexing, however, enhances the farmers’ ability to obtain a larger number of replacement heifers from their own herds. This enables farmers to expand their herd size without the need for buying replacement heifers from other farmers. Other advancements in reproductive biotechnologies include biotechniques like cloning, gene transfer, cryo-preservation of embryos, in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture which may have very limited application in the developing countries due to the high cost and advanced infrastructural requirements for their implementation.

Breeding Schemes/strategies

Sustainable livestock genetic improvement strategies that meet the needs of farmers and take the prevailing production system into consideration can make a vital contribution to food security and rural development. This requires the implementation of efficient, sustainable breeding schemes. In most of the developing countries the lack of such schemes is one of the hindrances to the contribution of the livestock sector to food production and income generation. Developing such a scheme for tropical environments is a challenging task constrained by small flock-size, communally shared grazing, uncontrolled mating, and the absence of pedigree and performance recording. To address these issues the advances in this area include nucleus/group breeding scheme and community-based breeding system. Nucleus/group breeding scheme is based on the principle that in each herd there is a small number of genetically very superior animals which − if brought together − will form a nucleus whose average genetic merit is far greater than that in any of the contributing herds. The important element in this scheme is therefore for a group of farmers to agree to pool their high performing animals. The main advantage of the nucleus scheme is that the genetic superiority of sire replacements coming into the base herds from the nucleus is far greater than what is achievable in each of the base herds. It is particularly attractive in situations where within-herd selection programs are ineffective due to small population size or inadequate technical skill. The nucleus breeding scheme shifts the responsibility of operating the breeding program from the farmer to the nucleus herd. It is therefore an attractive method for the smaller communities because of the limitations discussed earlier. However, the organization of the scheme may have to be under government control because cooperative ventures among farmers may not always be practicable. As a result, implementation of nucleus breeding schemes in low-input environments has sometimes proven to be somewhat difficult. The alternatives to centrally organized nucleus schemes are community or village-based selection schemes, which are breeding activities carried out by the communities of smallholder farmers. Community-based breeding system is a breeding program that involves local communities and institutions in the design implementation and ownership of breeding strategies. Its main objective is to improve the productivity of local breeds and thereby improve the income of rural farmers by ensuring access to improved animals that respond to improved feeding and management. Developing and implementing a community-based breeding program involves a series of interconnected activities and includes a description of the production system, definition of breeding goals, evaluating market access and policies, development and implementation of a locally adapted breeding strategy. Community or village-based breeding programs are intended to overcome the problems related to genotype–environment interaction, to avoid the genetic lag between the nucleus and the village populations, and are also appropriate for in situ conservation of indigenous animal genetic resources. Villagebased breeding programs also help to bridge the gap between the skills of the breeders and the farmers. Currently village or communitybased breeding programs have gotten wide popularity and they are being implemented in a number of developing countries in Asia and Africa mainly for the genetic improvement and conservation of small ruminants.

Traditional Breeding Methods

1. Selective Breeding:

• Selective breeding involves choosing animals with desirable traits for reproduction, gradually improving the overall genetic makeup of the population over generations. Biotechnological tools enhance the efficiency of trait selection through advanced genetic analysis.

2. Artificial Insemination (AI):

• AI allows the use of semen from elite males to artificially inseminate females. Biotechnological advancements in semen processing and storage enhance the accessibility and effectiveness of AI, facilitating widespread use in breeding programs.

Modern Biotechnological Tools

1. Genomic Selection:

• Genomic selection utilizes advanced genomic information to predict an animal’s breeding value accurately. High-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics play a pivotal role in identifying key genetic markers associated with desirable traits.

2. Gene Editing:

• CRISPR-Cas9 and other gene editing technologies enable precise modifications to the animal genome. This tool holds tremendous potential for introducing beneficial traits, improving disease resistance, and eliminating undesirable genetic elements.

3. Embryo Transfer (ET):

• ET involves the transfer of embryos from a genetically superior donor to surrogate females. Biotechnological tools enhance the efficiency of ET by optimizing synchronization protocols and improving embryo viability.

4. Cloning:

• Cloning technologies, such as somatic cell nuclear transfer, allow for the production of genetically identical animals. While not yet widely adopted, cloning has potential applications in preserving valuable genetics and accelerating breeding programs.

5. Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS):

• MAS involves using genetic markers linked to specific traits for selection purposes. Biotechnological tools enable the identification and utilization of these markers, enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of trait selection.

Challenges and Ethical Considerations

1. Ethical Use of Gene Editing:

• The ethical use of gene editing raises questions about the potential unintended consequences and long-term effects on animal welfare. Striking a balance between innovation and ethical considerations is crucial for responsible biotechnological applications.

2. Equitable Access:

• Ensuring equitable access to biotechnological tools is a global challenge. Small-scale farmers and developing countries may face barriers in adopting these technologies, emphasizing the need for international collaboration and knowledge sharing.

3. Public Perception:

• Public perception of biotechnological tools in animal breeding can impact their widespread adoption. Effective communication and transparency about the benefits and risks are essential to gain public trust.

Future Directions

1. Precision Breeding:

• Advances in biotechnological tools pave the way for precision breeding, allowing for the targeted modification of specific genes to achieve precise outcomes. This approach holds immense potential for addressing specific challenges in livestock production.

2. Integration of Omics Technologies:

• The integration of omics technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, provides a comprehensive understanding of the genetic and molecular processes underlying desirable traits. This holistic approach enhances the accuracy of breeding programs.

3. Climate-Resilient Breeding:

• Biotechnological tools can contribute to the development of climate-resilient breeds by identifying and introducing traits that enhance adaptability to changing environmental conditions, such as heat tolerance and disease resistance.

Biotechnological Interventions In Livestock Sector To Increase Productivity And To Combat Diseases

Biotechnology can be defined as any technique that uses living organisms or substances from such organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop microorganisms for specific purposes. It is one of the frontier areas of scientific development in the world today. Advances in the field of biotechnology catered to a wide area of science viz., Agriculture, Animal Sciences, Environmental Science, Food Science, Medicine etc. This sphere of science is increasingly becoming sustainable means of improving livestock production by influencing animal health, nutrition, reproduction and animal products.

The major challenge faced by animal production is to provide society with food products that meet their evolving nutritional requirements, within specific economic and environmental constraints. According to FAO, 70% of world population will be in hunger in around 50 years from now (2060). It has been reported that the world human consumption for the animal protein is 29 g per capita daily (or 10 kg per capita consumption). However, the trend toward increased per capita demand for foods of animal origin is occurring primarily in developing countries (80% of world population).

Livestock production is expected to grow tremendously in line with the projected demand for production by influencing animal health, nutrition and animal products. Therefore, the methods of livestock production must be changed to allow for efficiency and improvement in productivity. Biotechnological research is important in order to respond to the pressure of producing more food from animals to cater the food requirement of the ever-growing human population. Biotechnology has the potential to improve the productivity of animals by increasing growth, carcass quality and reproduction, improving nutrition and feed utilisation, improving quality and safety of food, improving health and welfare of animals and reducing waste through more efficient utilisation of resources. The biotechnology of livestock production is growing faster than any other sectors and by 2020 livestock is predicted to become the most important agricultural sector in terms of value-added commodity.

Biotechnology in animal physiology and nutrition

Animal nutrition has provided one of the greatest challenges to animal production with limitations arising from both quality and quantity. A large proportion of animal feeds are fibrous with varying levels of digestibility and nutritive values. Animal nutritionists have developed technology to improve nutritive value for feeds, enhance digestibility and acceptability, and removal of anti-nutritive factors from feeds especially for ruminant animals. Apart from the technology targeted on feeds, the manipulation of rumen microbial population through alkali treatment, microbial balancing and genetic manipulations are probably the most reliable means of enhancing degradation of low quality feeds.

Lignin has been identified as the main cause of difficult digestion of fibrous material. A potent lignase enzyme produced by the soft-rot fungus (Phanerochaete chrysosporium) that causes a high degree of depolymerisation of lignin is now available. Although the lignase levels produced by the fungi cannot meet the requirements for commercial treatments of straw, recombinant DNA technology has been claimed to have the potential to modify lignase genes and proteins to increase efficiency and stability considering that the lignin gene has already been cloned and sequenced from P. chrysosporium.

Manipulation of digestive tract environments which includes mainly the rumen in ruminants and intestinal tract in monogastrics using prebiotics and probiotics has been reported to be beneficial and effective in increasing the availability of nutrients to the animals. The main focus in the rumen is the manipulation of microbial flora population and type. Attempts have been made to introduce transgenic bacteria in the rumen environments to increase efficiency of rumen fermentation. Inactivation as well as detoxification of anti-nutritive factors in plants such as protease inhibitors, tannins, phytohaemaglutinins and cynogens mainly in legumes can also be done using transgenic bacteria.

Bovine somatotropin (a growth hormone), also called BST, has been produced with the help of a bacteria through recombinant DNA technology. Injection of BST in cows every two weeks increases milk production by about 20 per cent. Even though scientists consider BST very safe and cost-effective, it has been banned in some European countries. This is partly because of current milk surpluses and partly because of the risks inherent in DNA recombinant technology.

Biotechnology in animal reproduction

Artificial insemination is by far the most widely used biotechnology in animal reproduction and has been reported to result in genetic progress that is four times better than natural mating. Artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer (ET) are probably the most popular methods that have been adopted in developed and developing livestock industries. Supporting technologies that have increased the efficiency of AI and ET include micromanipulation of gametes and embryos for splitting, sexing, cloning, gene transfer, cryo-preservation of embryos, in-vitro maturation, fertilisation and culture (IVFMC) as well as genome analysis. The recent advances in biotechnology in reproduction also include production of transgenic animals and cloning.

Artificial insemination (AI): Especially since the development of efficient semen freezing methods, AI has become the most widespread biotechnology applied to livestock and especially cattle production. No other technology in agriculture except hybrid seed and fertilizer use has been so widely adopted at a global scale as AI. Progress in semen collection, dilution and cryopreservation now enables a single bull to be used simultaneously in several countries for up to1, 00,000 inseminations a year. By allowing for the widespread use of small numbers of elite sires, AI has had a dramatic impact on selection intensity. In addition, AI has allowed for the implementation of the progeny-testing scheme prevalent particularly in dairy cattle production, and which has had a major impact on the improvement of the herd by increasing the accuracy of selection despite the associated increase in generation interval.

Embryo transfer technology (ETT): Although presently not economically feasible for commercial use on small farms, embryo technology can greatly contribute to research and genetic improvement of local breeds. Advances in this area are mainly applicable in cattle. There are two procedures presently available for production of embryos from donor females. One consists of superovulation, followed by AI and then flushing of the uterus to gather the embryos. The other, called in vitro fertilization (IVF) consists of recovery of eggs from the ovaries of the female then maturing and fertilizing them outside the body until they are ready for implantation into foster females. The principal benefit of embryo transfer is the possibility to produce several progeny from the female, just as AI produces many offspring from one male animal.

Oocyte harvesting (OPU), in-vitro oocyte maturation (IVM), in vitro fertilisation (IVF): While the number of embryos that can be obtained from a cow / year using multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) is on an average limited to the order of 20 or less, the development of OPU in conjunction with IVM and IVF increases by at least 5-fold. Moreover, OPU can be applied to pregnant animals as well as prepubertal animals. The impact of these methodologies on genetic response operates through the same channels as MOET, i.e. increase of selection intensity on the female side and increase of selection accuracy on the male and female side.

Nuclear transfer or embryo cloning: The transfer of totipotent nuclei in enucleated oocytes theoretically allows for the production of large numbers of identical twins or “clones”. This opened the prospective to affect genetic response in a variety of ways including selection intensity, selection accuracy and generation interval. Initially, the sources of totipotent nuclei were blastomeres. Despite the potential use of first as well as higher order generation blastocysts as nuclei donors, the size of the clones has remained very small. The recent generation of totipotent embryonic stem “ES”-like cells might lead to a considerable increase in the efficiency of embryo cloning.

Sex selection: The use of sexed semen alters the sex ratio in favour of either sex. It is a great advantage for the dairy industry for producing replacement heifers. The availability of sexed semen in dairy cattle has been eagerly anticipated for many years, and recent developments in fluorescence-activated cell sorting have brought this technology to commercial application. Recent improvements in flow cytometric sorting now allows for the effective separation of viable X and Y-bearing sperms. While the numbers of cells recovered are incompatible with conventional AI practices, they are sufficient when combined with IVF techniques. This might become the method of choice to generate embryos of a desired sex. Embryo sexing can also be achieved by micro-biopsy and sex determination using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified Y-specific sequences. This approach, however, is economically only justified in very exceptional circumstances.

Gamete and embryo cryopreservation: Most methods described are only effective when used in conjunction with gamete and embryo freezing methods. In addition cryopreservation plays a crucial role in conservation programmes aimed at maintaining genetic diversity.

Biotechnology and Animal Production

Based on the central theory, “P = G + E”, that is, the Phenotype of an animal reflects its intrinsic genetic aptitude or Genotype as expressed in a given Environment, animal breeders have adopted a two-pronged approach towards improving the quality of their production. On the one hand, they have learned to master the environmental component by improving animal husbandry and nutrition practices, disease prophylaxis and treatment. On the other hand, artificial selection has allowed to continuously improve the genetic make-up of domestic species. Biotechnology has been adopted in the battery of tools aimed at improving both the nurture (E) as well as nature (G) components of the equation. Applications of biotechnology to improve the environmental component include:

• genetically engineered forage species, either to increase their productivity, or to improve their nutritional value,
• genetically engineering microorganisms to produce food additives,
• genetically engineering the gut micro flora,
• production of therapeutic or prophylactic compounds – including vaccines – from genetically engineered microorganisms,
• production of hormones or hormone analogues from genetically engineered microorganisms,
• immunomodulation of physiological processes,
• improved DNA-based diagnostic procedures.

Genetic markers and marker assisted selection

A genetic marker for a trait is a DNA segment which is associated with, and hence segregates in a predictable pattern as, the trait. Genetic markers facilitate the “tagging” of individual genes or small chromosome segments containing genes which influence the trait of interest. A genetic marker need not have an effect on performance. Its value is simply that it ‘marks’ chromosome segments containing genes affecting performance. Markers have already been identified for some traits controlled by single genes. Availability of large numbers of such markers has enhanced the likelihood of detection of major genes influencing quantitative traits. The process of selection for a particular trait using genetic markers is called marker assisted selection (MAS). MAS can accelerate the rate of genetic progress by increasing accuracy of selection and by reducing the generation interval. Marker identification and use in domestic livestock should enhance future prospects for breeding for such traits as tolerance or resistance to environmental stresses, including diseases. Research is currently underway to identify genetic markers for tolerance or resistance to various economically important diseases in livestock and poultry. Marker technology may provide in the near future an opportunity for selecting animals for resistance or tolerance to the important parasites and infectious diseases.

Production of good quality and high yielding animals

Transgenic animals

A transgenic animal is an animal whose hereditary DNA has been augmented by addition of DNA, through recombinant DNA techniques, from a source other than parental germplasm. Transgenesis is the technique that permits the manipulation of genes of one organism which can subsequently be introduced into genome of another organism of same or other species in such a way that the genes are not only expressed but also gets transmitted to its progeny. Transgenic animals thus produced will have enhanced growth rate and improved food quality. Successful production of transgenic animals has so far been reported in pigs, sheep, rabbits and cattle. For example, transgenic cows are developed to produce milk containing specific human proteins that helps in the efficiency of treatment of human emphysema or hemophilia. Cloned transgenic cattle produced increased amount of beta and kappa casein in milk fat and increased level of human lactoferrin. So also, such cows have been known to produce more milk or milk with less lactose or cholesterol, pigs and cattle that have more meat on them, and sheep that yield more wool. Pigs with human insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF 1) had 30 per cent more loin mass, 10 per cent more carcass lean tissue and 20 per cent less total carcass fat. Transgenic pigs carrying plant gene had increased amount of unsaturated fatty acids in their muscle to produce a meat called “Healthy Pork”. The ability to insert new genes for such economically important characteristics as fecundity, resistance or tolerance to other environmental stresses would represent a major advance in the breeding of commercially superior livestock and poultry.

Improvement in quality of livestock products

Major genes for meat quality offer excellent opportunities for increasing level of meat quality and decreasing variability. Identification, isolation and modification of useful genes are some of the important aspects of biotechnology research and development. The quality of carcass can be improved by manipulating the lipoprotein receptor and leptin genes thereby the cholesterol and fat content of meat can be altered.

Functional and designer livestock products

In order to improve the products, attempts can be made to develop strains of starter cultures capable of enhanced anticholestermic attributes, enhanced anticarcinogenic attributes, and enhanced antagonistic influence on enteropathogenic microorganism. Genetically engineered strains can play a vital role in manufacture of tailor-made high quality products. Cloning of genes from lactic acid bacteria could be carried out in strains of E. coli for which vectors and transformation systems are available.

Animal health and survival

Disease prevention is a vital tool in animal survival as healthy animals can be used longer in various production systems. The biggest risk to developing countries in the use of vaccines, drugs and pesticides is product dumping from manufacturing nations. Product dumping is unfortunately easy due to the lack of a strict monitoring mechanism and corruption. The livestock industries are still developing and are without organised structures to effect vaccine, drug and pesticide production and control as well as for controlling product delivery (viz. maintenance of cold-chain) to organized livestock keepers. The prospects for using sub-unit vaccines developed by recombinant DNA technology, pathogen attenuation by gene deletion (knock-out) and vectored vaccines depends on the level of technological development and even more importantly, the packaging of the technology which directly influences its affordability. The hope of utilisation of diagnostic tools based on basic DNA detection techniques and PCR methodology is clearly evident now. The use of monoclonal antibodies is increasing efficiency of disease diagnosis and has yielded encouraging results exemplified by the development of diagnostic tool for trypanosomosis. Treatment using passive immunization of farm animals using monoclonal antibodies is limited by cost implications whereas cytokine therapy is still a work-in-progress even in developed countries.

Molecular Diagnostic Techniques

Recent revolutionary progress in human genomics is reshaping our approach to therapy and diagnosis. Nucleic acid–based testing is becoming a crucial diagnostic tool not only in the setting of inherited genetic disease but in a wide variety of neoplastic and infectious processes. Molecular diagnostic tests detect specific sequences in DNA or RNA that may or may not be associated with disease, including single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), deletions, rearrangements, insertions and others. Clinical applications can be found in at least six general areas: infectious diseases, oncology, pharmacogenomics, genetic disease screening, human leukocyte antigen typing and coagulation. The advantages of using molecular diagnostic tools include its high sensitivity and specificity, speed and simplicity. They are particularly useful in case of non-culturable agents, fastidious slow-growing agents, highly infectious agents that are dangerous to culture, in-situ detection of infectious agents, agents present in low numbers, and for differentiation of antigenically similar agents. A few important molecular techniques are –

• PCR (Nested, RT, Multiplex, Real time, etc.)
• Loop mediated amplification (LAMP) technique
• DNA sequencing
• Hybridization/ DNA probing (In-Situ, FISH)
• Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
• Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)
• Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP)
• Southern and Northern Blot Analysis
• Ribotyping
• Single-locus sequence typing (SLST)
• Plasmid Profiling and Analysis
• Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
• Microarray techniques
• Recombinant DNA technology & Gene cloning

New Generation Vaccines:

The past two decades have seen an expanded scientific and commercial interest in the potential of new vaccines. Scientific advances have created new tools for developing vaccines for diseases for which no vaccines exist. The complete genomic sequence of a pathogen provides a catalogue of potential vaccine components. Improved techniques of protein purification and peptide synthesis facilitate the identification, isolation, and engineering of candidate vaccines. Novel adjuvants, formulations, and delivery systems to induce an optimal immune response have been developed. Recombinant-DNA techniques facilitate the construction of live vaccines, live vectors, or nucleic acid vaccines into which a gene coding for the vaccine antigen can be cloned.

New generation vaccines act upon the immune system in different ways depending on the type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines or vaccines based on synthetic proteins (inactivated proteins) act in a way similar to that of conventional inactivated vaccines, although usually more antigen is required to induce similar responses (because they are less antigenic). The most important advantage of these vaccines is the lack of the entire infectious agent. This makes it possible to differentiate between vaccinated and sick animals. This characteristic is even more important in deleted live vaccines or recombinant vaccines, which induce better immune responses than those of the inactivated proteins by expressing antigens with similar characteristics to those of conventional attenuated vaccines. It is also possible to differentiate them.

Major constraints on applying the technology in developing world

The constraints and limitation of biotechnology in animal production in developing countries are due to factors such as the poor conditions of the human population in such countries that include poverty, malnutrition, disease, poor hygiene and unemployment. In other words, the progress of biotechnology applications is hampered by several factors in the developing countries. The major constraints include:

• Lack of database on livestock and animal owners in most of the developing world
• Biodiversity within species and breeds
• Biotechnologies generated in developed countries not suitable for developing countries
• Uniqueness of animal breeds in developing world (each has its own developmental, production, disease resistance and nutrient utilisation characteristics)
• Lack of trained scientists, technicians and field-workers
• Absence of mechanism between industry, universities and institutions for technology transfer
• Expensive technology to be purchased from developed world
• High cost of technological inputs
• Poor bio-safety measures of biotechnology developed in developing countries
• Negligible investment in animal biotechnology
• Lack of clear policy and commitment from the government

Conclusion

Biotechnology has been applied in animal production in developing countries so far only in a very limited extent particularly in areas like conservation, animal improvement, healthcare (diagnosis and control of diseases) and augmentation of feed resources. Adopting biotechnology in a larger scale may greatly benefit the livestock sector ascertaining improved economic returns to the livestock entrepreneurs and small producers. However, developing countries have to address issues relating to policy making, development of trained manpower, infrastructure and enhancement of funding towards research & development in the frontier areas of biotechnology.

Biotechnological tools have ushered in a new era of possibilities in animal breeding, offering unprecedented precision and efficiency. From traditional selective breeding to cutting-edge gene editing, these tools empower breeders to accelerate genetic improvement, enhance productivity, and address challenges in livestock production. However, the ethical use, equitable access, and public acceptance of these technologies remain critical considerations. As the field continues to evolve, responsible application and thoughtful integration of biotechnological tools hold the key to shaping a more sustainable, resilient, and productive future for animal breeding.

Millions of people in India suffer from food insecurity, drought, conflict, a weak infrastructure and a limited livelihood base. To achieve greater food security, in addition to boosting agricultural output, there is a need to create more diverse and stable means of livelihoods to insulate the rural poor and their households from external shocks. Livestock kept under the prevailing smallscale conditions and traditional systems of production has a low level of productivity. Therefore, traditional systems of production alone can not be the best solution to feed the ever growing population and to address the pressing issues of food insecurity. One of the most important and reliable alternatives is the use of better technology. Therefore, science and biotechnology will have an important role to play in promoting the livestock-sector in India. A rational and informed use of some of the above mentioned advances in animal biotechnologies and breeding strategies is thus important. Of the different biotechnologies, a well organized use of artificial insemination in animal breeding that is based on local models is highly recommended. Artificial insemination is widely used in most developing countries and the demand is growing. It has been instrumental in many countries for disseminating the genetic potential of elite sires to farmer’s herds. Embryo transfer could have a major impact on cattle breeding in the region, especially if it is taken as part of a nucleus breeding scheme. Embryo transfer is beneficial in increasing the utilization of superior dams. An open nucleus breeding is a scheme where a nucleus herd/flock is established under controlled conditions to facilitate selection The nucleus is established from the “best” animals obtained by screening the base (farmers’) population for outstanding females. If well managed, open nucleus breeding schemes allows for greater selection intensity and could be one of the preferred methods of operation for quick genetic gain in indigenous, exotic or stabilized crossbred populations. However, in most low-input environments the implementation of nucleus breeding schemes has proven to be somewhat difficult due to the needed long-term commitment of sponsors and involvement of farmers. Alternatively, there is now much interest towards community or village-based breeding programs. The system allows active involvement of the communities from the definition of breeding goals and selection criteria to the identification and implementation of the most appropriate and acceptable strategy. In summary, proper adoption of some of the advances in animal breeding and biotechnology will have great potential to improve livestock productivity and food security. In view of the impressive results achieved in developed countries through the use of such advances in livestock production, there should also be good prospects for adoption of similar technologies to improve the productive potential and efficiency of livestock. The adoption of new technologies should be gradual and tailor-made as the adoption levels and their corresponding impacts are dependent on the level of infrastructure as well as human and institutional capacity developments in the target countries.

Compiled  & Shared by- This paper is a compilation of groupwork provided by the

Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)

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