Application of Technology through Use of Anatomical Models as Alternatives to Animal use in the Teaching of Veterinary Anatomy : An Animal Welfare Strategy

Application of Technology through Use of Anatomical Models as Alternatives to Animal use in the Teaching of Veterinary Anatomy : An Animal Welfare Strategy

The year 2020 was one of upheaval in education, and veterinary colleges were by no means exempt from the need to adapt to challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic. But the veterinary profession is nothing if not resourceful, and in some cases the need for social distancing merely accelerated the adoption of innovations already in play.

Animal Anatomy Models

Whether you are a veterinary student, veterinarian, researcher, farmer or in a related profession such as animal groomer, or boarder, accurate and precisely presented, animal anatomy models can facilitate acquiring vital information about animals in your area of expertise or care. Available in a wide variety with a level of depiction that is second to none,

One of the advantages of using veterinary anatomy models is that students get an accurate depiction of how various organs both function and correlate with each other; a concept that can be difficult to achieve when learning is restricted to textbook photographs. Generaly veterinary anatomy models are natural in their presentation and perspective. Some are color-coded, making it easier to identify and differentiate. Designed by experts in the field, veterinary anatomy models add perspective and understanding to any serious educational endeavor.

Non-animal methods like computer simulations, interactive CD-ROMs, films, charts, and life-like models teach Anatomy and complex biological processes well or better than many of the animal based methods. Research has shown that a significant number of students at every educational level are uncomfortable with killing live animals for dissection and experimentation, and some even turn away from careers in science rather than violating their principles. A survey conducted by PETA India among the final-year students of Bombay Veterinary College in 2013 revealed that 63% said procedures such as terminal surgery and practicing painful techniques on living animals causes distress and takes a profound psychological toll on students. In addition, 69% suggested that there should be a policy allowing conscientious objection by students to the use of live animals in favour of more modern humane techniques, 73% agreed that willed or ethically sourced body donations are effective replacements for killing healthy calves for anatomical studies, and 65% believed that non-harmful teaching methods such as simulation software, models, manikins, etc., are as effective as those achieved by animal use (PETA, 2016). Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, Surgery practical classes and Clinical internship trainings require large number of animals as part of teaching and learning. These subjects need animals for basic demonstration of the concept of handling animals, anatomical features and veterinary procedure demonstrations for skill development. The animals experience stress, pain and suffering before, during and after demonstration/handling. Therefore, we should look for some alternatives to animal usage from the animal welfare perspective.

A fundamental role of the veterinarian is the welfare and protection of animals. In the eyes of the general public, the relief of pain and suffering of animals as a duty of care is expected of the profession whenever treatment is administered to an animal patient. Although many students choose this profession based on motives of compassion for sentient beings, some individuals will subsequently avoid enrolling for veterinary studies because the course work will typically involve the killing of animals for dissection and/or use of live animals to demonstrate a variety of biological principles and teach clinical skills. Animals used or harmed in this way not only dissuade potential students, but it could also be argued that such animal use is contrary to the ethics of the profession . Indeed, the EU Directive 2010/63/EU, states that “the use of animals for scientific or educational purposes should therefore only be considered where a nonanimal alternative is unavailable” . Those who defend the indiscriminate use of animals in the context of veterinary education justify their position by claiming that such practices will better enable students to understand subjects such as anatomy and physiology, in addition to improving clinical and surgical skills. However, there are other ways to achieve these objectives using a different paradigm, which promotes high ethical standards, yet still provide the student with the necessary practical knowledge and skills required to produce competent professionals . Scientific knowledge and clinical competence are not the only skills required to produce outstanding veterinary surgeons; as professionals, veterinarians also require a significant level of understanding of animal behavior in order to recognize aspects of pain and emotion associated with states of distress . The modern veterinarian should be aware of the rapidly increasing societal interest in animal ethics. This change in perspective of how we view animals can be ascribed to an increase in our awareness of compassion, which unfortunately may be crushed when confronted with the use of animals in veterinary education.

Use of anatomical models in the teaching of veterinary anatomy as an animal welfare strategy:

Anatomy is the science that studies the macroscopic composition of the animal body, and is a fundamental part of the discipline of veterinary medicine. For its study it is divided into descriptive anatomy and dissections and topographic anatomy. For many years this science has used animals and their corpses for its study and understanding (Dyce et al., 2012), but today these practices are being questioned from various aspects such as: animal rights, animal welfare, operating costs, feasibility, management and reproducibility of the exercises (Ortíz, 2015). Currently there are more and more alternatives for the practice and teaching of veterinary anatomy such as artificial models, whether physical or virtual (Molina et al., 2012). According to Martínez and Romero (2010), it is important to find tools that facilitate learning, but also their evaluation, therefore, educational measurement and evaluation constitute key processes linked to the teaching-learning process and represent fundamental tools for the decision making within an institution. Flores et al. (2017) mention a definition of didactic strategy as “procedures and resources used by the teacher to promote meaningful learning, intentionally facilitating a processing of new content in a more profound and conscious way”. In the process of organizing teaching, didactic strategies are useful tools that help the teacher to communicate the contents and make them more accessible to the student’s understanding. A teaching strategy is not valuable in itself; Its value is in facilitating student learning and in generating more pleasant and conducive environments for university education (Flores et al., 2017) and it is under these statements that the viability of the use of anatomical models in the teaching of veterinary anatomy. Therefore, this work is a compilation of information on the use of anatomical models in veterinary education, their historical background, the different types and variables that exist, the justifications for their use, the advantages and disadvantages that they present, as well as the future challenges within veterinary education.

This document is intended to be a support guide for teachers and students of the degree in veterinary medicine and zootechnics, on the use of models in the teaching of veterinary anatomy as an animal welfare strategy, so that with it they can learn about the different tools that currently exist and where the scientific and technological development in the veterinary field is going, with a future objective that they can visualize a little explored and diffused area of the profession of veterinary medicine that is the innovation and development of alternative technologies to use of animals in education, as well as serving as a background for future research in the field.

 

2. Historical background of the use of animals in education

 

According to Téllez (2012), vertebrate animals are fundamental in biomedical sciences, since they have been used as models to understand the causes, diagnosis and treatment of diseases that affect humanity and animals, as well as contributions to education superior and specializations, in the development, production and control of medicines, food and other supplies. The history of the use of animals in education is related to the beginning of the experimental use of animals as models of human anatomy, physiology and psychology, it is believed that the practice of dissection was introduced in education, especially medical, during the 12th and 20th centuries. XIII. Once the similarity between the human body and the animal was established, this practice became common..

 

3. Historical background of the use of anatomical models in veterinary education

 

From the end of the VXII century to the midXIX century, a multitude of anatomical models were created for educational purposes and different materials (waxes, paper mache, wood, plaster) that were of great importance for the transmission of scientific knowledge due to the impossibility of conserving corpses, especially in hot season (Hernández et al., 2018). In the veterinary discipline according to Trujillo (2016), it was from 1761 with the creation of the Ecole Vétérinaire de Lyon, France, when anatomical models began to be used within the collections in the museums of the higher schools.

 

4. Description of the anatomical models developed and used in the teaching of veterinary medicine

Currently, as mentioned by Knight (2008), there are more and more alternatives for the practice and teaching of veterinary anatomy, among these alternatives are artificial anatomical models, computer models, electronic simulators or augmented reality. The different types of models and their variants are described below.

2D or two-dimensional anatomical models

Within this category are the manuals  atlases, coloring books, posters, photographs, digital presentations, drawings, diagrams and any two-dimensional representation that is used in the teaching and learning activities of veterinary anatomy ( Nieto et al., 2014). Chaix and Méniel (2005) mention that the determination manuals are based on the graphic representation of the various bones and that they sometimes include the indication of the constant characters (family, genus and species). They mention that for the approach to anthropozoology they are a good introduction, but they are not enough for the practical understanding of this science.

 

Audiovisual anatomical models

According to Soler et al. (2016) are resources that are presented as a realistic alternative to dissecting animals, it is a support material that precedes surgical practice in simulators or work in these species. They can be used by students and serves as entertainment before practicing with corpses. According to Bastida and Morales (2015), audiovisual resources are part of the didactic resources called multisensory. The use of videos  in medical higher education has shown to have excellent pedagogical utility, in universities worldwide they have been used in the teaching of anatomy, surgical, exploratory techniques, or even communication skills (Villaescusa et al., 2014). Tabares (2018) and Terrado et al. (2018), mention that new technologies such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, are tools that facilitate the transfer of audiovisual information remotely, thus allowing access to information.

 

3 Organic anatomical models

Molina et al. (2019) mentions that there are several techniques for the conservation of corpses, in order to appreciate the anatomical characteristics of animals and understand their role in practical teaching, of the units of anatomy and veterinary embryology, they usually use materials such as bones , fresh muscles and organs, or regularly fixed or preserved material (from slaughterhouses or corpses obtained after the humane slaughter of domestic animals), due to its short duration, which is approximately seven to ten days maximum, it is very expensive. For this, the products most frequently used for their quality and low cost are formaldehyde as a fixative and phenol as an antifungal.

Both products are classified as highly toxic and are very volatile, therefore, according to the legislation, their use is restricted in relation to the environmental levels allowed for these substances, which results in strong economic investments in the installation of extraction systems. adequate so that the environmental levels of the substances are allowed. Currently, according to Sánchez et al. (2012), Molina et al. (2019) and Frías (2019), there are other alternatives to those conventionally used for the preservation of anatomical pieces based on formaldehyde such as transparency, filled with silicone, paraffinization, the use of crystallized resins as well as the plastination technique , which is based on the replacement of organic fluids (mainly tissue water and part of the fats) by silicones, polyester resins or epoxies, which allow the conservation of biological material eternally, and has the advantage of being stored without the need for essential conditions and with the advantage of being innocuous and devoid of toxicity for those who handle it. With this technique, anatomical pieces with higher quality, dry, odorless, non-toxic and with unlimited duration are obtained, which allows its use in teaching (López, 2019).

 

4 Organic anatomical models

with interventions of synthetic materials Balastegui et al. (2018) describes them as follows: they consist of two components, one synthetic and one organic, these models are made on a chemically preserved organic base  and a synthetic component (plasticine, clay, plaster, wax, fabric, paper, resin , etc.). These models allow direct interaction with the pieces and develop creativity and problem solving. The advantage of these models is that they will remain as part of the inventory of anatomical resources for later use

 

5 Inanimate anatomical models

According to Tamayo et al. (2019) and Lenis et al. (2019) artificial models are a representation of a part or a replica of the body, which present the anatomy in a more simple way, which facilitates its understanding. These exist in various presentations such as mannequins that are assembled by anatomical pieces or simply organs or fixed whole bodies, that is, they do not present a physical interaction beyond contemplation, the didactic utility of these models is based on the following aspects: it can be used outside the laboratory without exposure to substances with a health risk, they allow better visualization of some structures that are difficult to visualize in a real corpse, which improves the learning process. These can be industrially manufactured  or elaborated in a traditional or artistic way by students  or teachers, through the use of 3D printing (Calavante et al., 2020). According to Payró (2015), Lenis et al. (2019), Balastegui et al. (2018), the advantages that can be attributed are that they allow various interactions with other types of models such as virtual ones, preserved organic anatomical models and other didactic techniques such as body painting and body projection. Disadvantages are poor access to these resources due to cost or availability by manufacturer location.

 

Body painting

According to Sattin et al. (2018) the body painting technique was introduced by Op den Akke in 2002, as a method of teaching human anatomy. This form of body art is enjoying increasing popularity in veterinary medicine, particularly for the study of equine anatomy , as it provides a faithful representation of various anatomical structures through painting on the skin. Body painting is an innovative and promising method of teaching anatomy that, if combined with classical methods of teaching anatomy, has great applicability in veterinary education (Senos et al., 2015; Sattin et al., 2018). This auxiliary method allows students to associate anatomical structures with their respective locations and is believed to complement traditional anatomy teaching. The use of new techniques that are based on live models is still rare in the teaching of veterinary anatomy and raises animal welfare concerns, however, living anatomy as Sattin et al calls it. (2018) to the technique of body painting and palpation, is increasingly gaining recognition as an alternative to the use of corpses. The body painting technique also has drawbacks, such as the need for a highly capable artist and the level of physical stress to which the horse is subjected during the long procedure, if it is not treated properly. Also, palpation should be avoided, as direct contact can damage the artwork over time, just like the horse lying in the stable. For this reason, friendly and accessible techniques have been developed based on the use of a type of disguise or shirt (Fig. 10), in which the skeleton of the equine is painted, thus guaranteeing the use of the body painting technique in equines that suffer a lot of stress from driving (Sattin et al., 2018).

 

Body projection

Like the body painting technique, it is based on the ethical use of animals in teaching and its fundamental principle is the 3 R’s (replacement), preventing the suffering caused by the use and handling of animals in teaching practices. and relies on virtual simulators, veterinary anatomy software and inanimate artificial models  for its execution in the classroom, this cutting-edge technology was implemented in Mexico, in the Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics degree of the University of the Valley of Mexico, Campus Coyoacán (Press UVM, 2015). The advantages of this system is that it allows interaction with a variety of topics within anatomy and has applicability in different subjects that are fundamentally based on anatomy, such as surgical technique, systemic pathology, general pathology, zootechnics and the different clinics by species (Payró, 2018). The disadvantages of this technique are the costs of the software and the models, although against this, digital presentations and models made in an artistic or handmade way with a similar practicality can be used.

 

Anatomical simulators

Physical or mechanical models can be defined as those devices (mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, etc., or a combination of them) that allow simulating all or part of a biological system (Molina et al., 2012). Neri (2017) defines simulation as a technique that replaces and amplifies real experiences, evoking and replicating substantial aspects of the real world in an interactive way. Within the clinical area of health sciences, innovative simulation models have been incorporated, these being a fundamental method for teaching, learning and as an integration system between basic and clinical sciences (Pérez & Romero, 2014). A simulator is considered to be any logical, physical or biological system capable of fully or partially simulating a process that we intend to study, which can be classified as mathematical (computer simulators, preexisting data), physical or mechanical (devices that allow simulating in whole or in part of some biological system) and biological (incorporation of ethical biological materials) (Molina et al., 2012). The bioethical basis for the use of simulators is based on the fact that they must be used for educational purposes before putting the safety of the subject / animal at risk (Baracaldo et al., 2019; Sandoval, 2018; Neri, 2017; Boroni & Goldsack, 2016). There are different types of simulators and they are located in a range that goes from videos and computer programs, through models of body parts, animal models, robotic surgical simulators, virtual reality simulators, augmented reality simulators, total procedure simulators, to full-scale models, also according to their level of complexity of operation and technology can be classified as: – Low complexity: simulates the process without simulating your environment (training boxes, basic CPR manikins, bovine artificial insemination (AI) simulator). – Medium complexity: they simulate the process including part of its environment and variations can be made in the procedure (bovine gynecological examination simulator for the diagnosis of the estrous cycle) (Pérez & Romero, 2014) High complexity or advanced simulator: it simulates the process, its environment and has devices and sensors connected to a computer that allow feedback in real time (Martnsen & Jukes, 2005).

 

Virtual reality simulators

Martinsen & Jukes (2005) refer that generally when the term virtual reality is used, mention is made of advanced interactive software, with powerful 3D graphics , which allows the user to immerse themselves in the experience when using it, since that facilitates psychomotor skills and procedures to be practiced in a highly sensory manner. In this exciting and growing field of technological development, the use of new technologies dramatically increases the opportunities for interaction in real time with a dynamic reality simulator, through the computer-human interface, a significant example is the Canine Virtual Anatomy program of the Collegue of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences of Colorado Estate University , which allows a dissection of the body of a real dog that was previously performed to later be registered in the software, and thus be able to visualize all the structures, in addition to containing hearing aids as well as interactive questionnaires.

 

An ethical framework is an essential tool for clinical practice

 

Does increased ethical awareness improve veterinary performance in the diagnosis and management of the animal patient?

 

Significant research in the field of ethology suggests that empathy can be considered an assessment tool to better interpret animal behavior and symptoms . A veterinarian who is genuinely interested in the welfare of the animal patient will be motivated to inform and help (and when this is not possible, to report) in cases of health problems that are related to the owner and/or the environment, such as poor housing conditions, inadequate primary knowledge (especially with regard to the animal’s behavior and basic needs) as well as care for the neglected animal. More than any other profession, veterinary surgeons need to understand how nonhuman sentient beings feel and why, and to act in accordance with this knowledge, in order to improve the animal’s situation . An internet survey available on the animalnetwork.com website indicates that pet owners consider the veterinary profession to be the most compassionate in comparison with seven other professions. Compassion and care are not merely personality traits but are characteristics that are crucial to the performance of a veterinarian. These traits are also useful to better prevent, diagnose and cure disease. For these reasons, they should be seen as clinical skills that every veterinarian should be taught and encouraged to develop. Maintaining a distance between healer and patient is, by definition, contrary to the practice of compassion and will likely prevent an understanding of the suffering of other sentient beings. Some studies show a correlation between the use of painkillers and attitudes toward animals (20). A diligent approach, as opposed to an indifferent approach, will likely cause less stress to the patient during the clinical examination. Iatrogenic induced stress may mask symptoms and result in a less accurate diagnosis . A professional attitude devoid of ethics and compassion may result in missing or incorrectly interpreting symptoms, even to the point where the animal tries to mask or hide its symptoms. It is therefore of paramount importance that the clinical examination itself is not responsible for causing unnecessary fear to the animal.

 

The use of animals in veterinary education: are we teaching indifference?

 

By inculcating and applying principles of compassion and care to improve animal welfare, humane education can achieve a more prominent role in the veterinary profession. In some universities the subject has been largely ignored  and in other cases, the opposite is true . Thus, depending on the university curriculum, potentially outstanding students with a strong caring attitude may decide not to enroll in veterinary medicine, or conversely, may decide to leave the course before completion . Many students are highly motivated and keen to use their clinical and surgical skills for the benefit of animals, having chosen the veterinary profession based on a strong sense of compassion . The use of teaching methods that involve animal suffering, may also bring about a desensitization of the student (an obstacle to compassion), particularly once the student becomes accustomed to, and accepts, the instrumental use of animals . A clear deterioration in compassionate attitudes has been shown in qualitative studies, in addition to decreased sensitivity to animal suffering as students near completion of their studies, all of which clearly suggests a negative impact inherent in the education system . This desensitization process is seen by some teachers as an educational objective, aimed at better preparing students for the “real world” or else to “harden themselves,” creating a scenario where the animal is seen merely as an “object of study “or a” tool” instead of being seen as a sentient individual or a patient . This educational aim appears to be more motivated by the convenience of certain attitudes toward the use of animals than the need to create caring professionals.

 

Definition and types of alternatives

 

Many scientists in the context of animal research currently implement the 3Rs principle of Reduction, Replacement and Refinement alternatives as defined by Russell and Burch . Apart from the ethical issues, the use of alternative approaches that improve animal welfare standards also improve scientific rigor of experimental results. In an educational context, the best alternative would be to replace all animal use causing animal suffering, whilst still allowing ethical animal use. However, this training can and should be achieved by the use of ethical and scientifically validated alternative methods, as is the case in some areas of animal testing. When teaching practical skills in particular, the use of alternative methods helps to safeguard the student from acquiring undesirable attitudes towards animals, such as indifference to animal life and/or disregard for animals as patients. In veterinary medicine and animal sciences, the most suitable alternative to the use of animals in teaching is through the use of models, mannequins and simulators as well as multimedia computer simulations, including virtual reality, in addition to the use of ethically sourced animal cadavers and tissues . Each is followed by complementary activities such as clinical work with patients intended to benefit from this approach. Thus, a student will begin by using early stage alternatives such as models, before moving on to simulators and more advanced alternatives, and finally dissection of ethically sourced animal cadavers and tissues. Only after these phases are successfully completed will the student be allowed to take part in initial clinical work with animal patients. In this way, students are exposed to a richer educational experience (in the different disciplines and academic semesters) in which students can obtain an adequate level of training, with added confidence in their work, whilst maintaining respect for life and the individual animal. Models, mannequins and simulators: These models are already widely available for teaching morphology, orthopedics, and related subjects. The models are fairly realistic and designed for clinical learning ability, including blood collection, intubation, thoracocentesis, CPR techniques and urinary catheterization. A canine example of such a model is Critical Care Jerry®, which integrates a digital simulation of heart and lung sounds, in addition to allowing intubation, CPR, intravenous access, and other functions. The simulators are an essential tool for surgery, intensive care and some clinical techniques. As with the mannequins, simulators give students the freedom to practice according to their individual skill level, based on speed, learning by trial and error, and repeating the procedure at no welfare cost to an animal. Most mannequins possess artificial skin, bones and organs together with an artificial pulse and liquids that simulate blood and bile . When computerized, it is possible to recreate real-time emergencies, and to allow monitoring of the student’s performance, also in real time, in practicing their surgical or critical care skills. It is also possible to study the effects of drug administration together with computer simulation, in order to study physiological dose dependent response . Multimedia computerized simulators: Examples include virtual dissections and experiments in highly equipped laboratories (specially adapted for teaching physiology, pharmacology and intensive care) where the student can accomplish everything on the screen, but also virtual reality simulators for clinical techniques, where equipment is handled. Well-designed software can create a high level of understanding so as to increase understanding of specific topics according to individual needs . This type of material encourages individual exploration and problem-solving strategies that promote scientific thinking, initiative and creativity . Virtual reality: The term “Virtual reality” generally refers to advanced interactive software with powerful 3D graphics, which normally immerse the user in the experience and improves and enhances psychomotor function, and is a highly sensory procedure . In this instance, the student normally holds a device that simulates a needle-holder, a scalpel or an endoscope, where a particular procedure needs to be performed in a virtual patient. The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Glasgow has developed alternatives to invasive tests in animals as part of its commitment to animal welfare and to ensure better training for their students. Thus, for example, the palpation of ovaries in mares and cows is replaced by a virtual simulation that allows students to practice the palpation without running the risk of causing harm to an animal, and allows analysis of a variety of clinical cases . Ethically sourced tissue and animal cadavers: The study of anatomy in veterinary medicine would not be complete without access to animal cadavers or animal tissues. These resources are also excellent tools for the practice of clinical and surgical techniques once the student has acquired the necessary skills from earlier nonanimal alternatives. The term “ethically sourced” refers to animal cadavers and tissues that have been obtained from animals that died from natural causes or else were euthanized strictly for medical reasons in response to a terminal illness or injury  and therefore, euthanasia was the best welfare option for the animal in question. In addition, for the acquisition to be considered ethical, it must not support a parallel market where these cadavers or tissues could be marketed . The availability of ethically sourced cadavers will increase in independent veterinary clinics, veterinary hospitals, veterinary schools and other medical veterinary service centers once duly legalized. However, it is advisable to create a Donation Program, in which the client signs an informed consent document in order to donate the body of their pet, after its natural death or euthanasia. Students seem to better appreciate the study of anatomy and demonstrate more mature behavior with animal cadavers that have been donated by a client (18). If there is cooperation between the various university departments (e.g., pathology, anatomy and surgery), the use of these animals can be further enhanced. The main goal of veterinary education is to provide new graduates with the clinical skills needed to provide the optimal care of animals. Later on, greater skills will be required for more invasive approaches for diagnosis and treatment. These objectives can be achieved by involving students directly in the diagnosis and treatment of real patients. This approach can be applied for the treatment and care of sick animals brought into the educational establishment by the client. For veterinary students, working with live animals is essential, but the animals must also benefit from the encounter. Clinical skills can be acquired using this approach. The student will also benefit from the diversity of patients and clinical situations, whilst improving their communication skills with colleagues and the owners of animals. However, in achieving these objectives and meeting required levels of care for the welfare of these animals, it is essential for clinical tutors to provide close supervision to ensure that all work performed on these animals is either benign or beneficial to the individual animal . Thus, only after the basic techniques have been taught  will the student be allowed to move on to more advanced stages, such as the use of ethically sourced animal cadavers, and finally to the living animal, who will benefit from competent diagnosis and medical treatment.

 

Meaning of Alternatives to Animal Usage

Alternative is a choice between two or more things implying that good research may be performed without the use of live animals or good teaching using dummies rather than live animals. The use of animals in research, teaching and testing is an important welfare and ethical issue. The extent of animal use in research/ teaching is often debatable and revolves around the relative value, often referred to as ‘moral value’, of humans and animals. An alternative to animal usage is any procedure/method/technique/approach that are meant to replace a particular science-based procedure that may harm the interests of animals, to reduce the numbers of animals required, or to refine the procedure in such a way that the welfare of the animals in the procedure itself or in its context is optimised.

 

ALTERNATIVES TO TEACHING

Animals are used for teaching purposes at various levels. The use of amphibians, small animals and large animals are common in paramedical schools, veterinary and medical colleges. The examples for alternatives include: Models instead of dissection to teach students the principles of Anatomy. Avoiding normal dissection of animals to see physiological parameters (e.g. students examining their own physiological parameters such as heart rate, vision or hearing).

Although not a replacement for dissection in a strict sense, this type of models/ exercises has the following benefits: 1) The alternatives are both educational and stimulating. 2) They do not involve the harming or killing of animals and have the added benefit of providing, albeit indirectly, a lesson in compassion. 3) Alternatives are durable and usually economical – even if initially expensive, most alternatives become highly cost-effective over time. 4) For some alternatives, students can use them repeatedly without incurring further costs. 5) Most importantly, alternatives are humane and welfare friendly. 6) They offer educators and students numerous ways to teach and learn, respectively, all types of information without harming or killing other beings. The following are few examples of alternatives to animal usage in teaching at various levels.

 

Plastination

Plastination is the process of infiltrating specimens with synthetic materials. It is gaining ground over other methods. Plastination technique was pioneered by Dr. Gunther von Hagensat the Institute of Plastination in Heidelberg, Germanyin 1978. Dr. Gunther successfully plastinated human bodies in 1995 and attracted millions of curious visitors (https://bodyworlds.com/). Gunther’s method involves replacing bodily fluids with forcible impregnation of acetone followed by silicone, epoxy or polyester copolymers under vacuum. Preserving a buffalo calf in formalin is expensive and costly  considering that six such specimens are required annually as teaching aids (Patel, et al., 2015). Therefore, plastination models are being used as low cost alternative methods to formalin preservation .

 

Flash Based Modules

The flash based modules are useful to the surgeons, pathologists and gynaecologists to refresh their knowledge on the interdisciplinary anatomical features. This will greatly enhance the efficiency in performing various surgical procedures. They also enhance the learning ability of students .

Advantages of Flash Based Modular Teaching: Reduction in number of animals used for dissection. Drop in consumption of formalin, phenol, glycerol for embalming of specimens for storage. These chemicals pollute environment and cause health hazards such as eye, and skin irritation, and are also a potential source of cancer. They can be used multiple times and improves the efficiency of teachers and students. Useful for surgeons and practitioners to have a glance on the subject before the commencement of any operation, which will minimize greatly the errors. Once developed can be shared by all the colleges of the country and help in uniform method of teaching. A sample of the module preparation comprises different components under the following headings a) Schematic view: This portion will highlight the diagram of structures such as blood vessels, nerves, location of muscles, organs etc. b) Animation: This part will show the blood circulation, nerve supply and its function, the muscle orientation and its functional aspects such as contraction, expansion and various joints can also be highlighted with their functions. c) Text information: Each module will be provided with text as in case of blood circulation, the names of blood vessels and the structures to which they supply, similarly the nerves as well as the names of the muscles with their orientation and the topographic position of various organs. d) Video of the actual dissection: The blood supply, nerve supply, muscle orientation, topography of organs are actually video graphed through a dissection of an animal.

 

Models

A Model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object or live animal. These physical models can be made up of rubber, plastic, fiber, Plaster of Paris or cement. These physical models offer 3D view to the  observer.

 

 Rubber Models

 

These convenient animal models can be used as alternatives in place of live animals to demonstrate some basic skills in veterinary courses, such as drug administration, suturing techniques in surgery, endotracheal intubation etc. . observer.

 

Plastic Models

They provide visualization of anatomical features of some organs such as brain, eyes, ears, and heart, hence reducing the use of samples from live animals. These are affordable and available at the local market

 

Wooden Models

Wooden replica of animals and their body parts are one of the cheap, readily available, and portable alternatives to animal handling in veterinary courses. Wooden body part replicas also minimize the frequent use of live animals as they can last longer from wear and tear as compared to rubberized counterparts.

 

Low Cost Models

Using published pictures of animal or its internal organs, little of imagination and artistic inclination of student, they can make models of internal organs or even whole animal replica using papers, clay or styrofoam. Organ sculpturing can be made as a class activity to enhance understanding of students to particular anatomical features of organs as they sculpt using recyclable materials.

 

Wire Models

Using chicken wire mesh, these models can be shaped to produce a hump or the back portion of animal and they can be used as life-size dummy for rectal palpation. The wire mesh can be covered with old newspapers thoroughly soaked in glue and glue together, one layer after another. Once the mold is hardened, it can be painted to look like a cow’s hump. The inside organs such as the rectum can be made from rubber tubes with size enough to insert a hand and be able to palpate another structure that could be shaped as uterus

Specimens in Glass Containers

The use of animal replicas can also reduce the number of animals that need to be sacrificed in anatomy and physiology courses. Anatomy specimens are normally provided every year because the shelf life of the cadavers deteriorates. This can be due to improper storage of organ specimens after demonstration, hence the need for another animal to be sacrificed as specimen. Another means to preserve the specimen for longer period is by soaking the organs in 30% formalin solution for one month and placed in covered glass containers for another month without aeration. The resulting product will last for 3 years without sacrificing animals every semester. Though there is a problem of foul smell of these organs, however, after sometime, the formalin smell will also diminish.

Manikins

A mannequin (also called a manikin, dummy) is an often articulated doll used by artists, tailors, dressmakers, window dressers and others especially to display or fit clothing. The term is also used for life-sized dolls with simulated airways used in the teaching of first aid, advanced airway management skills such as tracheal intubation or animals used in computer simulation to model the behavior of the animal. These are sometimes also referred to as virtual patients.

 

Simulators

Medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy . Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies..

 

The use of alternatives will reduce the pain and suffering in animals that is induced during the live demonstrations. Wooden replicas minimize the frequent use of live animals as they can last longer from wear and tear as compared to rubberized counterparts. There are some apprehensions that these models cannot replace animals completely as they are unlikely to provide enough information about the complex interactions of living individuals and students may fail to learn exactly how to react with the behavioral reaction of live animals during the procedure. However, these problems can be compensated with a proper lecture that will include details of what to expect during animal handling. Adjunct lectures such as video presentation of live animal handling can be used to provide visuals on the possible reactions of animals to such procedures. There is definitely an advantage if student can acquire the techniques/procedures through animal models. This can alleviate the student’s apprehensions of handling animals and gain confidence which leads to better handling of animals during actual handling with a purpose. In every level of learning, there is a process called adjustment and adaptation. The veterinary students are much curious on learning by handling the animals. However, once the concept of animal welfare sinks in to their consciousness, the use of alternative inanimate models can be a much acceptable part of their learning experience. Later on, they themselves develop alternative models. Though there is a need for adjustments, with the proper guidance and adjunct educational tools, students tend to adapt to these alternative models and later on learn to readjust and readapt to live models in clinical practice.

 

Arguments for and against the Use of Animals in Testing

Are we allowed using living creature in testing to enhance our knowledge and science to improve mankind’s destiny? If the answer is categorical “No”, it seems that further discussion is not required, except for the consequences of such answer. If answer is “Yes”, several further questions arise: Are we allowed to do it all the time or just now and then? Animals could and should be used and for what purposes? In any ethical debate the reduction of the number of animals in testing and the possible alternative methods should be taken into account. At every level we should pay attention to the evaluation to strike a balance between discomfort/ suffering and the usefulness of each test.

Arguments for and against such use of animals in testing are summarised in

: Arguments on Use of Animals in Testing Arguments For:

 

1) More and more tests now subject to refinement and much less suffering to animals.

2) Products we use are 100% safe, animal testing is assumed to be the only means of ensuring this.

3) Legal requirement to perform animal testing.

4) Not all ‘cosmetics’ are ‘vanity products’. Most definitions include products such as sun screen, which may be considered almost therapeutic.

5) A ban on animal use at some point in the past could have resulted in lost opportunities for consumers and industry (a ban could equally have allowed for more opportunities)

6) Information is needed to help treat patients after misuse, for example, accidental swallowing of large amounts of product by children.

 

Arguments Against:

1) Consumers would rather have products not tested on animals (abolitionist view).

2) Testing unnecessary and the severe costs (e.g. Draize test, LD50 test, acute skin toxicity. test) to the animals outweigh the trivial benefits to humans (utilitarian view).

3) Enough cosmetic products are available, compounds/ingredients are known substances and no need to develop more.

4) Human volunteers could be used instead.

5) Validated alternatives such as cell cultures, synthetic skin models and computer modeling can be more effective, more efficient and more reliable than animal models.

 

Why Alternatives to Animal Usage in Testing?

1. Welfare and Ethical Reasons Animals are sentient beings Large number of animals are used currently in testing Societal concern b) Scientific Reasons Questionable relevance Reproducibility Keep track with progress c) Legal/Policy Reasons Animal welfare laws/policies/rules Trade laws d) Economics Costs Labour intensive Time consuming.

Alternatives to Animal Usage in Research

There is a  guidelines on welfare of laboratory research animals issued by the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA).As we discussed the 3 R’s concept (Reduction, Refinement and Replacement) along with 4th R (Rehabilitation), which provide a framework for improving the conduct and ethical acceptability of experimental techniques on research animals.

Reduction: Any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in laboratory research. Refinement: Modify experimental procedure to minimise pain and increase quality.

Replacement: Methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in laboratory research with other options like 3D models.

Rehabilitation: It refers to aftercare rendered to animals that have been:

o Bred for the purpose of experimentation

o Subject to any form of experimentation o Retained in animal/breeding houses for further experiments or for education The sole purpose of rehabilitation is alleviating the pain or suffering due to experimentation and to prolong the life of the animals until the point of natural death. Of late, the CPCSEA has also made it a national policy that persons using laboratory animals have a moral responsibility towards these animals after the experimental use. Costs of rehabilitation of animals after the experiments are to be part of research costs.

 

General view on experimentation on animals 

Did you know that every year nearly 100 million animals are crippled, burned, infected and killed in laboratories for biology lessons, scientific researches and study along with medical experiments? Most of them have to survive their time by inhaling toxic fumes day in and day out, they are attached to machines restraining their movements and injected with strong chemicals causing their vitals to break out of the normal patterns. Forget about these, the environment they are kept in is far away from anything natural. The cages they are put in is tiny and suffocating and kept away from other animals with zero scopes for socializing. This has a traumatizing and psychologically distressing effect on the animal’s mental state. Many of these animals die at the end of an experiment not because of the pointless and endless experiments, but because of the mental suffering. To understand this, try to imagine yourself in an apocalyptic world, where you are more likely to go mad and eventually die, not because of the fear of fighting off zombies but for the lack of any socialising and human contact. It is a proven fact that animals get more distressed if isolated from their groups.

Some gut-wrenching facts about animal testings 

1. One of the reasons behind the continuation of testing on animals is because experimenting on humans is not only more expensive but also upsetting for researchers as no sensible human wants to see another human suffer because of his/her actions, right? But because animals cannot express their discomfort and pain, they become the scapegoat. It is also a cost-friendly alternative.
2. For the purpose of keeping up the research work irrespective of the number of animals becoming ‘unfit’ also known as infected or dying, animals like dogs and cats get kidnapped from the streets and that includes the domesticated dogs and cats who might have wandered away from their owners or house. This is to avoid unnecessary scandals and accountability.
3. 94% of the successful animal tests done for human benefit fail when given to humans for final use.
4. If it is not understood then let me tell you, in many countries which still allow animal testing, torture and death by torturous treatment, they are thought to be absolutely and legally justifiable in their nature. China is the biggest example of this although it has not produced any official record for the same, insiders have submitted so.
5. Monkeys, being closest to human beings, are often used to find cures for fatal diseases like cancer and AIDS/HIV but this fact is mostly never taken into account that their immune system is much more empowered and equipped to negate the effect of the disease, and it is assumed that the drug administered as a cure has been successful in fighting off the disease. It is only found much later after usage by human patients that the drugs were actually ineffective for them, causing deaths and faster spread of the disease in the patients who were administered the drug.
6. It is not an unknown fact that before finalizing cosmetic and detergent products, they are tested on mice and rodents. But what is not known is that they are applied to their hairless and naked skin, without any pain killer to absorb the irritation or burns.

Not only is animal testing unethical, but it has also proven to be quite useless in the field of medicine and science which had aimed to equip society to combat the problems in the respective fields through their abusive experiments on poor and dumb creatures.

The truth behind animal testing, rights and regulations in India

Every major breakthrough in the medical and scientific field is solely because of the numerous amounts of tests carried out on animals, but it is not only these two fields of study which benefit from animal experimentation. The business based on animal products heavily profits as well and their means are not always what is considered to be ethical or even legal. Such a scandal was in 1999 when PETA had exposed the brutal Indian leather and meat market. Cattle were smuggled across state-borders and practically dragged to the underworld and illegal slaughterhouses. The cattle were not provided proper food and rest during the journey covering miles and miles of distance and if they did stop out of fatigue or weakness, their tailbones were crushed, tails were twisted and chilli powder was thrown and rubbed into their eyes to keep them from halting. On top of that, many political leaders were involved with charges varying from corruption to animal abuse. Since then, the Indian legislature had to tighten the rules so that such rampant abuse of power and living creatures did not happen in the future. However, it is quite sad to see that even after legal measures were taken to secure the safety and well-being, the government has failed to hold the international medical associations accountable for their numerous tests on animals.

Nonetheless, it has been accepted that animals are indeed required for study because India has not yet prepared any artificial human simulator as an alternative but certain rules were laid down by the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA).

The Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)

CPCSEA is a statutory body formed under Section 15(1) of Chapter IV,  Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 by the Central Government of India. The committee’s purpose is to ensure that animals are not subjected to undue pain or torture. For fulfilment of this purpose, the rules on breeding and experimentation were further introduced in the year 1998 that have been amended thereafter to keep the provisions updated with the changing times and to cope up with the loopholes. The committee can follow its procedure in the performance of its duties.

Funding to the Committee would comprise grants from the government from time to time. Any person can also gift, donate, contribute, bequest and the like to the Committees funds.

Under guidelines provided on the regulation of scientific experiments on animals by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in June 2007, certain ethical principles have been mentioned by which the CPCSEA is supposed to follow. These principles are:

Principle 1: Purpose behind carrying out the experiments

Experiments on animals might only be carried for the following reasons:

• To facilitate discovery in the field of physiology for advancement;
• To procure knowledge that would come in use for improving, saving or prolonging human life;
• To gain significantly in ensuring well being of the people; and
• To find a cure for a disease. The disease might be of plants, animals or human beings.

Principle 2: Avoid animal experimentation if an alternative exists

The animals that are least sentient i.e. capable of feeling emotions majorly pain should be used for animal experimentation. Wherever there was an alternative present and still, the experiment was conducted on an animal, then proper reasoning needs to be given as to what led to the decision of using the animals for experimentation.

Principle 3: Appropriate sedation and anaesthesia

Priority needs to be given to the object of causing minimum pain to the animal during an experiment. The animal is to be treated at par with human beings when it comes to deciding on inflicting pain. Investigators need to follow a humane approach and if the pain caused by an experiment would last more than a moment or a short span then anaesthesia or appropriate sedation needs to be rendered to the animal. Animals are to be treated with the utmost compassion and kindness.

Principle 4: Euthanasia, when allowed?

After the experiment is conducted on the animal then after experiment procedures and welfare also needs to be rendered to the animal. The investigator is responsible for the rehabilitation and aftercare of the animal. The investigator can decide on administrating euthanasia only in the following cases:

• When the animal is rendered physically or mentally incapable of functioning or perceiving the environment or loses its sentience.
• If the animal is undergoing excruciating long pangs of pain after undergoing an experimental procedure.
• If human lives get endangered due to non-termination of animals that underwent an experiment.

This principle has been incorporated in Rule 9(cc) of the Breeding of and Experimentation on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules, 1998.

Principle 5: Suitable living conditions

The living conditions for the animals should be suitable for their species. For biomedical purposes, the animals must be handled by a trained scientist or veterinarian.

Functions of CPCSEA

• Establishments that conduct experiments on animals or breed them should get registered by CPCSEA.
• Nominee selection for Institutional Animal Ethics Committee of the registered institutions.
• Based on reports of inspections conducted by CPCSEA, approving animal facilities shown fit for housing animals by the report.
• Granting permission for experiments that involve animals.
• Recommending the import of animals for usage in experiments.
• In case of violation by establishments, CPCSEA has the authority to take any action.

Breeding of and Experiments on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules, 1998 (enforced in 1982)

The rules embody the principles and make registration with CPCSEA a necessity amongst other essentials. The important rules have been discussed below:

Definition of the term ‘Experiment’

‘Experiment’ as defined under Rule 2(e) of the Rules states that an experiment is either a programme or a project that involves the usage of animals. Such usage is undertaken for acquiring knowledge related to biology, physiology, ethology or is of a chemical or physical nature. The animals can be further used:

• in the production of reagents (A substance or mixture used in other reactions);
• In the production of antibodies or antigens;
• For procedure related to diagnostics and testing;
• For establishing transgenic stock;
• For saving and alleviating lives;
• In an activity that will result in a significant gain in the well being of people of the country; and
• In an activity that will help come up with a cure for a disease related to human beings, plants or animals.

Any activity taken up for the fulfilment of any of the aforementioned objects would qualify as an ‘experiment’.

Rule 10: Procurement of Animals

It states that:

• Animals for experimentation can be acquired from ‘registered’ breeders.
• Alternative legal sources are to be used in the case of non-availability of registered breeders.
• In case of procurement from legal sources, written permission from the appropriate authority should have been sought. If there is a replacement method that enables non-use of an animal, then it should be given the priority. In cases of despite there being the availability of a replacement technique, the animal is used for an experiment, the decision of going ahead with the usage of the animal be strongly justified.

Rule 14: Suspension of Registration of an Establishment by CPCSEA

The Rules specify when can CPCSEA suspend or revoke a registration of an establishment:

• If in the report of the Member Secretary or the authorized officer it is proved that the rules are not being followed by the establishment or a breeder and the directions given by the Committee to rectify such violation, haven’t been implemented, then the Committee decides on suspending or revoking the registration of the establishment.
• The breeder or the establishment should be allowed to be heard.
• No minor violation should result in revocation or suspension. Minor violation is an act that doesn’t have any direct effect on the well being of the animal or that doesn’t lead to pain, suffering, any other adverse health disorder and death of the animal.

Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC)

This committee was formed under Rule 13 of the Breeding of and Experiments on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules 1998. The committee comprises a group of people whose main function is to overlook the functions of the establishment during an experiment. For experimentation on large animals, the case is forwarded to CPCSEA. The committee is constituted for 3 years. At the time when the registration is renewed, it is supposed to be reconstituted. Quorum is of 6 members.

Other than having scientists from various fields, IAEC should comprise a socially aware member and a nominee of CPCSEA. It is necessary that a CPCSEA nominee must be present during meetings. The Chairperson conducts the meetings, and for certain situations, an alternate chairperson is appointed.

The member secretary of the committee is responsible for preparing the minutes of the meeting and the copy of the minutes is to be sent to the Member Secretary of CPCSEA within 15 days otherwise the meeting doesn’t get considered as valid.

Some rules passed by various regulatory bodies

As per Section 17(d) of the PCA Act, many educational regulatory bodies came forward with stricter regulations to tackle the issue of animal abuse for study in educational institutions.

University Grants Commission

The UGC banned the use, dissection and experimentation on animals in colleges teaching courses on zoology, physiology, anatomy, etc. for undergraduate and postgraduates students, and to adhere to the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and the PCA Act, 1960.

Medical Council of India

The guidelines issued by the MCI were confusing and contradictory regarding their stand on the matter. They had stated in their circular that they would continue with clinical aspects of teaching and at the same time, would have central or departmental animal houses. Due to this confusion, all colleges under the MCI have obtained a CPCSEA license to maintain the animal houses.

Pharmacy Council of India

The notification issued by the PCI was similar to that of the UGC. It had declared that institutions have to stop the dissection of animals in the graduation level and a general ban was put on the use of animals for any purpose whatsoever. Further, clarification helped to maintain that experiments on animals could be conducted after a thorough investigative evaluation and obtaining a license from the Institutional Animals Ethics Committee.

It is funny that even after so many efforts, India continues to overlook the sectors like agriculture, science, medicine and technology where animals are used and abused. In 2013, The Bureau of Indian Standards had banned the use of animals in the cosmetic industry and artificial and computer simulations were to replace the animal testing needs. In 2016, the ban extended to soap and detergent industries. In 2018, the Uttarakhand High Court gave a landmark judgement in the case of Narayan Dutt Bhatt vs. Union of India on how animals are legal entities and thus has “extended the rights of a living person to the animal kingdom”. Does this not mean that just like how a human being cannot and should not be subjected to such inhumane treatment, even animals should not be treated like that? This judgement has somehow helped in curbing the malpractices with respect to the safety and security of animals.

How strong are Indian laws against animal testing?

On a positive note, India has shown improvement in the active protection of animal rights all the while maintaining the interests of the stakeholders in the procedure. But are they sustainable enough to keep the numbers of abuse cases down? The answer is a ‘no’ because just like how in the 2018 Uttarakhand High Court judgement, the judges talked of ‘animal rights’ but those rights were only the rights ‘non-citizens’ are forwarded which somehow deprives the animals of some very crucial rights, exclusive to only citizens, in the same way, some animal rights are protected but the loopholes for maintaining the humane rights has gone right out the window.

Some legal rights and provisions to protect animals

• Under Article 51A(g), it is the fundamental duty of a citizen to have compassion for all living creatures.
• As per Section 428and Section 429 of the Indian Penal Code, it is a punishable offence to kill or maim any animal, including strays.
• Cosmetics tested on animals and the import of such products is banned as per Rules 135B and 148C of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945.
• Under Section 11(1)(h) of the PCA Act, it is a punishable offence to keep an animal chained/confined for long periods, neglected without sufficient food, water, shelter or exercise, the punishment including a fine or imprisonment up to 3 months or both.
• Section 9 of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972lays down that capturing, trapping, baiting or poisoning any animal is punishable with a fine of Rs 25000 or imprisonment of 7 years or both.

All these rules and laws were introduced long ago but were enforced with serious consequences only in recent years, that also after the 1999 scandal exposed by PETA. It is an unfortunate event that even after such laws exist that India continues to trade with countries and fund companies where such gross violations continue to take place. Even though post-2015, the number of cases of such violations have gone down there is still a lack of transparency in the system because in a study found, it was revealed that in the records maintained by labs for compiling data on the animal subjects, 90% of the animals were not mentioned because they were illegally transported into the labs. There are still loopholes in the system which allows for these figures to come up.

(Excerpts from https://blog.ipleaders.in/laws-and-regulations-regarding-animal-experimentation-in-india)

COMPILED & EDITED BY-

Dr.Nirbhay kumar singh
Assistant professor
Department of veterinary Anatomy
Bihar veterinary college
Patna

REFERENCE-ON REQUEST

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https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/production-application-of-transgenic-animal-for-improving-livestock-productivity-human-welfare/

https://www.ecorfan.org/republicofperu/research_journals/Revista_de_Educacion_Tecnica/vol5num15/Journal_of_Technical_Education_V5_N15_3.pdf