Applications of Calcium Propionate in Dairy Cows: A Review
Calcium propionate, a salt of propionic acid, has found widespread applications in the dairy industry, particularly in the nutrition and management of dairy cows.
Calcium propionate is a safe and reliable food and feed additive. The calcium ions and propionic acid generated by calcium propionate hydrolysis are the basic components in the rumen of dairy cows. The application of calcium propionate in dairy cows is summarized in Figure 1 . Calcium propionate can be used as a silage additive to inhibit the growth of mildew, reduce mycotoxins, and improve the aerobic stability. Adding calcium propionate to TMR feed can inhibit the putrefaction of the feed in hot weather; thus, calcium propionate can also be used as a preservative in feed. Propionic acid generated by the hydrolysis of calcium propionate is the main glucose precursor in dairy cows. Adding calcium propionate to the diet during the perinatal period can effectively alleviate the nutritional metabolic disease caused by NEB in dairy cows, and the calcium ions generated by hydrolysis can serve as a calcium source to effectively alleviate paralysis caused by milk fever. Calcium propionate can also promote dairy calves’ rumen epithelium development to promote calf growth through propionic acid. Proper feeding is beneficial to the health of dairy cows, but excessive feeding may inhibit the appetite and limit the intake. In summary, the applications of calcium propionate in dairy cows mainly include the inhibition of feed mildew, alleviation of NEB, prevention of milk fever, and promotion of the rumen epithelial development of dairy calves.
With the modernization, the dairy sector is focused on the increased production through enhanced or improved feeding managemental practices. At the same time, due to more production stress on the animals, the requirements of the various nutrients also change. After parturition, dairy animals face major two metabolic disorders namely Milk fever and Ketosis, out of which, first one is caused due to lack of calcium or Hypocalcaemia or excess loss of the calcium through milk or colostrum while the latter one has the root cause of Negative Energy Balance (NEB).With respect to the calf development, the daily weight gain is an important factor to get the proper weight at the first heat. Since, the rumen is not fully developed at the initial stages, absorption of the nutrients hamper. In livestock feed industry, the problem and hazardous effects of mycotoxin and fungus development cannot be neglected. India is a developing country with majority of the population involved in agriculture and livestock sector. Due to more emission of the methane gas from the livestock, we contribute to the global warming. All these issues can be resolved with the help of one stop solution i.e. calcium propionate. It can be used as a feed preservative, growth promoter and a source of calcium and energy at the same time. Propionic acid, which is hydrolyzed from calcium propionate and formed under acidic conditions in the rumen, is absorbed by the rumen epithelium, passes to the liver through the portal vein, and synthesizes glucose. Propionate is an obligatory anaplerotic metabolite for the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It enters the TCA cycle through succinate, thus providing carbons that can either remain within the TCA cycle or be extracted from the cycle for gluconeogenesis.
- As a gluconeogenic precursor :
After parturition, with a high milk yield, the nutrient intake of dairy cows increases to meet the output of milk, resulting in a negative nutrient balance that requires the mobilization of body reserves i.e. body fat. The metabolic diseases fatty liver and ketosis are due to the extent of glucose deficit that induces the excessive mobilization of body fat. In addition, during the perinatal period, the DMI of dairy cows is hamperedas the rumen volume is occupied by the growing foetus and other hormonal changes. Due to this, dairy cows enter the state of NEB in early lactation. Cows showing excessive NEB utilize their body fat as a source of energy to maintain the rapidly increasing milk yield, which leads to excessive body fat mobilization, ketosis and fatty liver syndrome. The animals which are morehealthy are more prone to these conditions since their body fat reserves get reduced drastically, which ultimately affects their Body Condition Score (BCS). The failure of cows to meet their glucose demands for lactation leads to an impaired immune response and an increased risk of disease that may affect milk production and profitability. For cow rearing, the dietary energy can be improved through fat or concentrate supplementation to alleviate NEB, but excess fat supplementation inhibits rumen microbial growth, decreases the rumen pH value, and increases the rate of subclinical ruminal acidosis. Calcium propionate gets dissociated into calcium ion and propionate once ingested.
Propionate can directly regulate its own metabolism in isolated bovine hepatocytes through upregulation of the mRNA expression of cytosolic Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK1), mitochondrial Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK2), and Pyruvate carboxylase (PC), which are the key enzymes required for the stimulation of gluconeogenesis from propionate in ruminants. Propionate is the major glucose precursor in ruminants that has a positive energy balance and anti-ketogenic effects. It is used as a readily available energy source to correct metabolic problems in dairy cattle. Propionate, whose liver uptake is preferential and highly efficient, can inhibit hepatic lipid oxidation and the production of ketones. During the perinatal period, calcium propionate is a good available energy source for preventing metabolic disorders in dairy cows, so it can be incorporated into the diet and increase the rumen concentration of propionate, which is the main precursor for glucose synthesis in the liver.
- As a preventive measure for milk fever :
Milk fever is a metabolic disorder of adult females occurring most commonly about the time of parturition and characterized by hypocalcaemia, severe muscular weakness, sternal and lateral recumbency, circulatory collapse and depression of consciousness.The excessive loss of Ca through the colostrum (2.3 g / kg) and milk (1.2 g / kg) beyond the capacity of body to mobilize Ca from bone contributes to this situation.
Calcium absorption by the rumen appears to be a key factor in calcium homeostasis at the onset of lactation, and its failure causes uncontrolled hypocalcaemia, leading to parturient paresis. Calcium sources that are soluble at a slightly acidic pH may result in more absorption from the rumen, intestine, or both, than insoluble calcium sources. To increase the calcium absorption, an effective method is to increase the concentration of ionized calcium within the rumen by the given supplement. Providing a highly soluble source of oral calcium induces high concentrations of ionized calcium in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract. The high concentrations of ionized calcium in the rumen lumen induce a chemical gradient that passively transports ionized calcium from the mucosa through the tight junctions towards the extracellular space on the serosa side, increasing the concentrations of ionized calcium in the blood.
- Rumen development:
Rumen development of calves directly affects the growth and development of the calf late production performance as well as health status, so researches about rumen development of calves have always been an important part of ruminant nutrition. Rumen epithelium development plays a very important role in the absorption, metabolism, and transportation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs). VFAs, such as propionic and butyric, provide the main chemical stimuli for the proliferation of the rumen epithelium if the amount is sufficient, indicating that additives of propionate may be used in calf feed as rumen growth promoters. As one kind of propionate, the additive of calcium propionate may also stimulate the epithelium development of calves. G protein-coupled receptors (GPRs) are integral membrane proteins which are activated by an external signal in the form of a ligand or other signal mediator. Propionate can be converted into glucose in the liver, and higher glucose concentrations mean that high energy can be used to increase the body weight of calves.
Monensin is an ion carrier that can change the number of rumen microorganisms, reduce the amount of methane production, increase propionate in the rumen, decrease the intake of dry matter, and improve the efficiency of milk production and weight gain of dairy cows. However, as an antibiotic, the use of monensin in animal feed as a growth promoter may enhance the risk of antibiotic-resistant strains, so it is important to seek alternatives to this compound. calcium propionate as an additive in starter feeds of calves resulted in an equal animal performance before and after weaning in comparison to that of sodium monensin, which suggests that sodium monensin may be replaced by calcium propionate. Therefore, calcium propionate can be used as a good additive to promote the rumen development and growth of dairy calves.
- In TMR to increase the aerobic stability :
Warm and humid conditions are favourable for mold growth and can result in increased mycotoxin production. The spoilage of TMR in summer is an important factor affecting the production efficiency. To reduce the influence of TMR mold growth and its metabolites on the production performance, health, and milk quality of cows, appropriate methods, including chemical additives, water content control, increasing the number of fresh feed deliveries per day, and the timely cleaning of leftovers, must be taken into consideration. As mentioned above, calcium propionate is a safe and effective inhibitor of mold, and can improve the aerobic stability of feed. Mold growth can be prevented in coarse texture feeds and other high moisture feeds by the addition of calcium propionate. The addition of calcium propionate to TMR inhibits feed spoilage.
- In silage to prevent growth of the fungus:
Silage is a type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to the point of acidification. It can be fed to cattle, sheep and other such ruminants. The fermentation and storage process is called ensilage, ensiling or silaging. The process of silage making takes place under anaerobic conditions. Most often, silage gets contaminated or infested by the fungus by direct or indirect means. Molds identified in fermented feeds include Aspergillus sp., Cladosporiumsp., Fusarium sp., Mucor sp., and Penicillium sp., and their adverse effects may occur through either their deleterious effects on the nutrient quality or their production of mycotoxins.
Several mycotoxins have been detected in corn silage, including aflatoxin B1, citrinin, deoxynivalenol, gliotoxin, and zearalenone. Propionic acid has excellent antifungal activity and has little impact on the activity of lactic acid bacteria. Calcium propionate is an effective tool for suppressing the germination, growth rate, and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus in different substrates. Therefore, calcium propionate has the potential, as an additive in silage, to inhibit the growth of molds and decrease the mycotoxin contents in silage.Fresh alfalfa silage is prone to clostridia spoilage because of its low dry matter, low sugar contents, and high buffering capacity. Calcium propionate decreases the butyric acid content and dry matter loss and increased the water-soluble carbohydrate content. Calcium propionate is a good additive for silage, which can act as a significant inhibitor for the growth of molds and clostridia.
- Antibacterial properties:
The antimicrobial properties of calcium propionate are dependent upon the corresponding undissociated acids in solution and involve the uncoupling of microbial substrate transport and oxidative phosphorylation from the electron transport system. When exhibiting the same bacteriostatic effect, the effective dose of calcium propionate has been shown to be lower than that of sodium propionate. Propionic acid can interfere with the electrochemical gradients in the cell membrane, disrupt transport processes, and inhibit the uptake of substrate molecules, such as phosphate and amino acids. The antimicrobial activity of calcium propionate is due to the neutral undissociated propionic acid form, which is lipophilic and readily soluble in fungal cell membranes.
- Livestock feed :
In the feed industry, a warm and humid climate and a long postharvest period favours mold growth and the production of mycotoxins. Molds can cause economic losses and health problems due to the production of mycotoxins. Aflatoxins, which are potent mycotoxins mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, have carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and growth inhibiting effects on animals and humans. Calcium propionate is a well-established mold inhibitor that can be used in the feed industry to inhibit mold growth and reduce the incidence of aflatoxicosis in animals. Moreover, because of less feed spoilage, the heat production in feed is also reduced, preventing energy loss and poor palatability of the feed, which the cattle may refuse to eat.
- Methane mitigation :
Livestock are reared throughout the world, and are an important agricultural product in virtually every country. CH4 is emitted as a by-product of the normal livestock digestive process, in which microbes resident in the animal’s digestive system ferment the feed consumed by the animal. This fermentation process, also known as enteric fermentation, produces CH4 as a by-product. The CH4 is then eructated or exhaled by the animal. Within livestock, ruminant livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats) are the primary source of emissions. With the help of calcium propionate, we can enhance the propionate production in the rumen which in turn reduces the methane production. The applications of calcium propionate in dairy cows span a spectrum of benefits, encompassing feed preservation, rumen health, milk production, and metabolic stability. Its versatile nature, coupled with antimicrobial and acidogenic properties, positions calcium propionate as a valuable tool in modern dairy nutrition and management practices. However, as with any feed additive, considerations for dosage, individual cow requirements, and consultation with nutritionists and veterinarians are crucial for optimizing the positive impacts of calcium propionate in dairy cow diets. As research continues, calcium propionate remains a promising component in the quest for improved dairy cow performance and welfare.
Compiled & Shared by- This paper is a compilation of groupwork provided by the Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)
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