CONTROL & MANAGEMENT OF TICK & FLY IN CATTLE
(Ethnoveterinary,Biological control& general control practices)
Post no-695 Dt-08/06/2018
Compiled & shared by-DR RAJESH KUMAR SINGH, JAMSHEDPUR, JHARKHAND,INDIA
9431309542,rajeshsinghvet@gmail.com
Ticks are economically the most important pests of cattle and other domestic species in tropical and subtropical countries. They are the vectors of a number of pathogenic microorganisms including protozoans (babesiosis, theileriosis), rickettsiae (anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, typhus), viruses (e.g.,Kyasanur Forest Disease reported from Karnataka State of India; Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever reported time and again from Pakistan), bacteria(e.g.,Pasteurella,Brucella,Listeria,Staphylococcus) and spirochaetes The only food for the ticks is blood. They are voracious blood suckers; loss of blood for their rapid development impoverishes the hosts. In heavy infestation cattle must have more feed merely to meet the demands of the parasites; the growth of young animals is retarded, and they may remain thin, weak and stunted. In dairy cows, milk production is greatly reduced. Ticks belonging to genus Ixodes and Ornithodorus lahorensis are associated with tick paralysis which is a specific type of intoxication, resulting from the injection of a toxin by certain instars of ticks usually the adult females but sometimes by nymphs. Sweating sickness is a disease of cattle and other domestic species which occurs in South, Central and East Africa. It is associated with infestation by Hyalomma truncatum and has all characteristics of toxicosis Although, economic losses due to ticks are mainly due to the diseases which they transmit financial losses associated with nagging irritation and depreciation of the value of skins and hides (upto 20-30%) are also significant .In severely tick infested young cattle, sometimes ticks have been found in the oral cavity as well as in the stomach.
CONTROL METHODS AND PRACTICES ————
Management control—–
An integrated control strategy based on the following measures is recommended for the control of
ticks in cattle and buffalo: ——
1.Housing in tick proof buildings —–
To the extent possible, cattle and buffalo sheds should be tick proof especially for the housing of purebred exotic and crossbred cattle, as they are more susceptible to the tick infestation than native cattle and buffaloes. There should be no cracks and crevices in the buildings (as the ticks hide and breed there). Caulking of the walls of the animal’s sheds is an inexpensive measure that significantly reduces the tick burden. An acaricide channel should encircle the entire building. Heaps of dung cakes and stacks of bricks may also provide breeding places to the ticks in animal sheds and should therefore be removed regularly.
2.Slow burning of the wastes near the walls of the animal sheds ——
Since the female ticks generally lay their eggs in the cracks and crevices in the walls of the animal sheds,
scrapping of the farm waste (feces and feed waste, etc.) against the walls of unoccupied paddocks and its slow burning over a period of one or two days is quite effective in reducing the tick burden on the animals. This practice should be periodically repeated. All common sense precautions should be exercised while resorting to this practice.
3.Separate housing of cattle and buffaloes ——
Cattle (in particular those with exotic blood) are more susceptible to tick infestation than buffaloes.
Buffaloes do not usually carry cattle ticks except under exceptionally stressful conditions. They are not normal host of cattle ticks .When cattle and buffaloes are mingled together, the buffaloes sometimes
also suffer from heavy tick infestation. Therefore, cattle and buffaloes should be housed separately.
4.Quarantine ——-
Newly purchased animals should not be mixed right away with the already existing stock on the farm.
If ticks are present on the bodies of new arrivals, they should be treated with acaricides so that they are free from ticks before adding them to the existing herd.
5.Pasture spelling and rotational grazing——–
Pasture spelling and rotational grazing have been shown to be capable of greatly reducing the population of one-host ixodid tick Boophilus microplus on dairy farms in Australia .If cattle are placed on
spelled (i.e., divided) pastures early in winter when the ticks are producing few or no progeny and then alternated at 4-monthly intervals, the tick population can be controlled with a markedly lower number of acaricidal treatments. The spelled area to be grazed should first be checked by introduction of susceptible tracer calves. The practicability of the procedure depends upon the full-scale assessment of the increased weight gains relative to the costs of management.
Duration of the spelling period varies from 2 to 3 months in summer and 3 to 4 months in winter, but
these intervals need to be determined for each area. Even in countries where dairying is practiced with
considerable pasture grazing (e.g., New Zealand), pasture spelling is rarely used for tick control. In
developing countries like India , pasture spelling is not of much value because pastures and ranges are
mostly communal with regards to ownership. Pasture spelling and rotation of pastures are not very effective for the control of multihost ixodid ticks (e.g. Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum) or argasid ticks
because of the long survival periods of the unfed nymphs and adults
6.Manual removal of ticks —–
Where the number of tick infested cattle and buffaloes is very small, farmers remove the ticks
manually generally at the time of milking. Ticks so removed are killed by putting them on a smoldering
dung cake placed nearby. For manual removal of ticks, using the forefingers, first grasp the tick close to the animal’s body and then twist it counter-clock wise. Entire tick can be removed in this way and with only little discomfort to the animal .
Cattle enjoy manual removal of ticks. A caveat is pertinent with manual removal of ticks. When removing the tick manually, consideration should be given to the possible hazard to humans from pathogens present in these ticks. The most important and deadly human pathogen that has been recognized is Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) virus, usually associated with ticks of the genus Hyalomma. Several outbreaks of this disease have been reported from Pakistan. CCHF is widely prevalent within the geographical distribution of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Investigators collecting ticks for experiments as well as the average farmers should, therefore, be made aware of the possibility of transmission of CCHF virus potentially associated with manual removal of ticks. Ticks should preferably be removed with the forceps and in no case crushed between the fingers (OIE, 2004).
7.Clearance of vegetation ——
Various stages of some ticks (e.g., Boophilus species) attach themselves to the blades of grass and
other vegetation and stealthily attach to the cattle passing nearby. Though clearance of vegetation will
annihilate their places of shelter, this type of action, however, may encourage soil erosion and may be
detrimental to the ecosystem.
Chemical control—–
8.Use of acaricides ————
At present, periodic application of acaricides (agents used to kill ticks and mites) is the most widely
used method of tick control in dairy farming. Control of ticks with acaricides may be directed against the free living stages of ticks in the environment or against the parasitic stages on host. Acaricides can be applied by dipping, washes, spraying, pour-on, spot-on or by injections. Insecticide ear tags are commercially available in some countries for the control of horn flies, face flies and spinose ear ticks. Dipping is an expensive operation but is desirable when a large number of cattle are to be treated or when a tick eradication programme is in place. The frequency of dipping depends upon the
species of the tick infesting the cattle. In the case of Boophilus microplus, dipping every 21 day is
recommended to break the life cycle because 18 days is the least time from the dropping off of an engorged female to time when larvae can be ready for infestation, and the dip gives protection for three days. The construction of a dipping tank varies according to the kind and number of animals required
to be dipped. In tropical and sub-tropical countries, it is preferable to cover the tank with a roof, as it will avoid excessive concentration of the insecticides by evaporation or dilution by rain.
The following precautions should be observed while dipping animals
for tick control and treatment: ——-
*Wounds must be attended to thoroughly before
resorting to dipping, otherwise dipping causes
discomfort to animals and toxicity may occur.
*Avoid dipping on cloudy, rainy, windy or cold days.
*The animals to be dipped should not be thirsty.
*Animals that are fatigued due to any reason should
not be dipped.
*To the extent possible, avoid contamination of the
dipping tank with organic matter (e.g. dung) as it
lowers the concentration of insecticides in the dip.
*The animals must actually swim in the tank and
have one or two dips of their heads in the acaricidal
solution. For this purpose, two attendants with forked
blunt sticks should direct the operation.
*Let the animals drain properly before they are sent
out to the fields, otherwise the insecticide will cause
pollution of feed, fodder, or other items coming in
contact with insecticides.
* Design the dipping area with
a good drain back to the dipping bath.
*The concentration of the dip should be very
carefully adjusted and may be same as recommended
for the spray but in no case higher than that.
*Weak animals less than three months old should
not be subjected to dipping.
*Human safety against insecticides is of paramount
importance. While handling any acaricide, avoid
repeated or prolonged contacts with skin and inhalation
of dust and mist.
* Wear clean clothing and wash hands and face before eating or smoking. Keep the antidote
(generally atropine sulphate injection @ 0.2-2 mg/kg)
ready for use in the case of acaricide poisoning.
*Recommended drug withdrawal period should be observed.
*The dimension of the dipping tank should be decided according to the number and type of dairy
nimals on the farm.
The following dimensions for the cattle farms may be indicated : ——-
*Maximum depth – 10 feet, it includes 2-2.5 feet for splash walls.
*Length – 50 feet, let at least middle half of it remain filled with 7-8 feet deep insecticide, with entrance and exit having slopes.
*Width – 10 feet throughout the entire length.
*A plunge-dipping tank should have a pucca, cemented, impervious, non-slippery internal lining The
entrance and exit should have convenient slopes. It
should be filled in such a way that the animals are in a
position to swim a few feet on their way.
* Incorrect or poor application of even a highly effective acaricide can result in less than satisfactory control and may contribute to the development of acaricidal resistance.
*For small number of animals (say 10-25), spraying with a bucket-pump hand sprayer is more economical.
*In order to effectively control ticks, it is necessary that every part of the body be sprayed and not only the hair but the skin be moistened
Tick and fly control
• Ticks transmit diseases like anaplasmosis, theileriosis and babesiosis
• Biting flies transmit diseases like Surra and E fever (see respective chapters).
• Heavy infestations may lead to anaemia and significant loss in productivity.
• Tick and biting flies cause severe discomfort to the animal.
• May cause allergic reactions at the biting sites.
• They lay a large number of eggs resulting in further increase in population.
I. TICK CONTROL—-
• Any newly purchased animal should be completely de-ticked before allowing to mix with other animals.
• Carry out periodic application of acaricide on the animal.
• Each adult tick lays around 3000 eggs and the larvae can survive from 2-7 months , based on the climate, without feeding.
• All cracks and crevices in the cattle shed therefore should be sprayed with a higher concentration of the acaricide along with application on the body to avoid re-infestation. Flaming also can be done using a flame gun if available, with a little bit of caution.
• The acaricide group should be changed often to avoid resistance from developing.
• The acaricide should be applied in proper concentration.
• Seek advice from a veterinarian on the appropriate acaricide and its dosage.
II. FLY CONTROL——————
• Proper manure and urine disposal on a regular basis. Disposal should be done at a reasonable distance from the cattle shed.
• Any stagnation of drainage should be avoided.
• Smoking the shed with raw leaves (neem leaf preferred) especially during evenings would help reduce the nuisance.
• Fly repellants may be used in proper concentration.
Natural repellants like neem oil etc, may be applied regularly to repel both biting flies and ticks. This does not have any harmful effects of chemicals and chances of re¬sistance developing are also remote. Application should be always done against the di¬rection of the hair and should cover the entire body, especially underbelly and legs.
9.Biological control ——-
Ticks have numerous natural enemies, but only a few species have been evaluated as tick biocontrol
agents. The most promising entomopathogenic fungi appear to be Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana, strains of which are already commercially available for the control of some crop pests. Entomopathogenic nematodes and parasitoid wasps of the genus Ixodiphagus have only a limited pragmatic role in tick control. Predators, including birds, rodents, shrews, ants and spiders play some role in tick control. Ox peckers Buphagus spp. eat ticks from the bodies of infested animals and tick burden is generally low in cattle and buffaloes that are tethered under the trees in summer due to predation of ticks by some birds. Raising poultry chicks in the cattle barns greatly reduces tick burden on the infested cattle as the chicks (particularly young ones) pick ticks from the bodies of cattle as well as ticks moving in barns. Practicing mixed poultry and dairy husbandry is associated with considerable wastage of cattle feed and hazard of infectious diseases like salmonellosis and crytococcosis. In the New World (North, Central and South America), fire ants (Pheidole megacephala) are noteworthy tick predators. Engorged ticks may also become parasitized by the larvae of some wasps (Hymenoptera) but their role in tick control is not significant. Nematodes of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae are endowed with insect killing abilities. The third-stage juvenile (infective or dauer)
stage of these nematodes are able to actively locate, parasitize and kill a wide range of insect species. These nematodes owe their insecticidal activity to bacterial symbionts (Xenorhabdus spp. for Steinernematids and Photorhabdus spp. for Heterorhabditids) which they carry in their intestine and release these bacteria into the hemocele. Bacteria proliferate and kill the insect within 24-72 hours. Owing to success in mass rearing of entomopathogenic nematodes, they are now used commercially against insect pests in agriculture and gardens in Australia, China, Japan, USA and Western
Europe (Samish et al., 2000). Fully engorged B. annulatus ticks are highly susceptible to infection by the entomopathogenic Steinernematids and Heterorhabditids with a LD50 and LD90 of upto 15 and 165 nematodes/tick/dish, respectively (Samish and Glazer, 1991). However, the results of practical application of nematodes in tick control are variable (Samish et al., 2000). Certain Stylosanthes spp (tropical legumes) can kill or immobilize larval ticks and the use of these plants may simultaneously improve pasture quality (Fernandez-Ruvalcaba et al., 1999). Brachiaria brizantha has also been shown to be lethal to Boophilus larvae. Owing to development of acaricidal resistance and growing public concern about insecticidal residues in food of animal origin, biological control is likely to play a substantial role in future integrated pest management programmes for tick control.
10.Breeding cattle for tick resistance ——-
The development of cattle lines or breeds with enhanced genetically based resistance is especially
attractive prospect . Zebu (Bos indicus; e.g.,Gir, Sahiwal) and Sanga (a Bos taurus × Bos indicus) cattle, the indigenous breeds of Asia and Africa, usually become very resistant to ixodid ticks after initial exposure. In contrast, European (Bos taurus) breeds usually remain fairly susceptible. The tick resistance of Zebu breeds and their crosses is being increasingly exploited as a means of tick control. The introduction of Zebu cattle (notably Gir, Sahiwal cattle) to Australia has revolutionized the control of Boophilus microplus on that continent. Use of resistant cattle as a means of tick control is also becoming important in Africa and the Americas. Resistance for ticks has bee shown to be heritable and can be increased by breeding from cows and bulls selected for resistance .
The observation that some individuals in the herd are more resistant than others, no matter what the breed, is the stimulus to cull out all breeding animals that are the most susceptible and carry the heaviest tick burden (Hungerford, 1990).
Bonsma (1983) has mentioned the following factors as the basis of tick resistance/tick repellency of Zebu cattle:
thick movable hides covered with short straight, non-medulated hair (in European breeds the skin is thin and covered with wooly hair); high skin vascularity; well developed panniculus muscle; sensitive pilomotor nervous system which moves their hides upon the slightest provocation high density of sweat glands; an efficient erector pili muscle which makes the hair stand up on provocation by flies, ticks, etc. and stimulates the secretion of sebum in the hair which is repellent for ticks .
11.Ethnoveterinary practices against ticks ————
Several plants and herbs have been shown to possess anti-tick insecticidal, growth inhibiting, anti-
molting and repellent activities. A number of reports are available on the effect of different extracts of plant material on tick species. Preliminary results obtained by Indian workers (Ghosh et al., 2007) with alcoholic extracts of sitaphal (Annona squamosa) and neem (Azadirachta indica) against different life stages of Hyalomma and Boophilus are highly encouraging. One of the fairly well established time honored practices for tick control in Punjab is to feed ground (powdered) Tara mira (Roquette, Eruca sativa) to cattle in summer.
To this end, 5 kg of Tara mira is grinded. One fourth of a kg (250 gms) of this powder is soaked daily over
night in water. In the morning, ice or ice cold water and salt (50-100 gm) are added. The mixture is churned or vigorously shaken for a few minutes and drenched to a tick infested cow/buffalo. This recipe is widely purported to reduce the tick burden, is considered to be galactagogue (i.e., milk yield booster) and widely touted to have a cooling effect and thus helps to sustain the rigor of heat in summer. Sometimes, farmers in Punjab resort to the external application of grated/powdered common salt for tick control. In conclusion, ticks infestation is a significant cause of economic losses to the dairy industry all over the world. At present, the use of acaricide is the most commonly used method of tick control. To the extent possible, dairy farmers and veterinarians should make use of an integrated tick control strategy based on utilization of biological control method, breeding for tick resistance etc. The use of vaccines for tick control is on horizon
12.Pheromone-mediated control ———-
Certain pheromones are important in mating of arthropods and attraction of female to susceptible host. Certain aggregation attachment pheromones (AAP) enhance the aggregation or attachment of unfed nymph and adult tick . AAP can be used in controlled strategies by incorporating the pheromone tick compounds into plastic tag infiltrated with insecticides. Tag release pheromone slowly attracts tick, acting as ‘tick decoys’
13.Sterile insect technique—–
Sterile insect technique is a method of biological control, whereby large numbers of sterile insects are released . The released insects are generally male as it is the female that causes the damage, usually by laying eggs in the crop, or, in the case of mosquitoes, taking a blood meal from humans. The sterile males will compete with wild males for female insects. If the female mates with a sterile male then it will have no offspring, thus reducing the next generation population. Repeated release of sterile insects can eventually wipe out a population, though it is often more useful to consider controlling the population rather than eradicating it This technique has been successfully been used to eradicate the Screw-worm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax) in areas of North America. There have also been many successes in controlling species of fruit flies, most particularly the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens), and the Med fly (Ceratitis capitata) . The sterilization of insects with radiation, which may be weakening the newly sterilized insects, if doses are not correctly applied, makes them less able to compete with wild males
14.Immunological control—
Vaccines have several advantages over conventional chemical acaricides. They offer sustained action, usually free of residues, intrinsically specific, cheaper and resistance is unlikely to develop. Several antigens derived from ticks have been tested as vaccine candidates. Various experiments lead to the isolation and identification of concealed BM86 antigen that has been expressed in E. coli and Pichia pastoris to produce recombinant tick vaccine Tick GARD and Gavac respectively against B. microplus . The second generation B. microplus vaccine TickGARDPLUS has also been developed which provides higher and long lasting immunity . Another recombinant antigen Bm95 isolated form B. microplus tick has been used for control of resistant ticks along with Bm86 and it is suggested it could be a universal antigen to protect against infection by B. microplus strain from different geographical areas
