Effect of climate on Livestock Performance

Effect of climate on Livestock Performance

Climate change is a global concern that impacts various aspects of life on Earth, including agriculture and livestock production. Livestock farming is a critical component of the global food supply, providing meat, milk, and other animal products that are essential for human nutrition. However, the performance and well-being of livestock are significantly influenced by the prevailing climate conditions in the regions where they are raised. This article explores the multifaceted effects of climate on livestock performance, covering topics such as heat stress, cold stress, nutrition, disease, and adaptation strategies.

Despite the spectacular success of the green revolution and achieving selfsufficiency in food production, there are increasing concerns on sustaining the pace of agricultural growth to feed the large population of our country. The impacts of climate change on agriculture are being witnessed globally, but countries such as India are especially vulnerable in view of high population depending on agriculture, there is excessive pressure on natural resources and coping capabilities to climate change (Venkateswarlu, 2017). Climate change will affect livestock production through competition for natural resources, quantity and quality of feeds, livestock diseases, heat stress and biodiversity loss while the demand for livestock products is expected to increase by 100% by mid of the 21st century (Garnett, 2009). The challenge is to maintain a balance between productivity, household food security, and environmental preservation (Wright et al., 2012). The situation in India is more alarming as rural economy is primarily dependant on crop – livestock production systems. Almost 70 per cent of livestock in India is owned by small-marginal farmers and landless labourers (NAAS, 2016). The animals of these poor livestock owners are most vulnerable to climate change and are at greater risk since they do not possess necessary means for adaptation and mitigation. Presently there exists very few strategies for promoting sustainable agriculture and livestock related practices that explicitly include measures to support poor or local communities to mitigate the effects of climate change (IPCC, 2013). This has led to food insecurity, hunger and suicide of farmer as well as livestock keepers in India. However this can be mitigated by selection and rearing of those livestock which respond to changing conditions that includes climate change and disease outbreak (Gornall et al., 2010). The vast animal genetic diversity is critical for ensuring food security and overall development of the country (Sunderland, 2011).The animal genetic resources of India if taken care of have the potentiality to the future demand of growing population (FAO, 1995; Hammond & Leitch, 1995). Climate resilient livestock production system is the answer to the changing global climate. Selection and management of those climate resilient livestock which have the ability to produce and endure drastic climatic conditions will promote food systems to ensure food security and better livelihood of the people (Thornton et al., 2014).

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVESTOCK

The effect of climate change on livestock can be direct or indirect which leads to marked differences in productivity as well as health of the animal (Thornton, 2010; Nardone et al., 2010) Climate change directly affects the health, reproduction, nutrition and overall body metabolism of the animal resulting in poor performance, inferior product quality and outbreak of novel diseases (Hayhoe et al., 2007; Frumhoff et al., 2006). Indirect effects are slow but long lasting which includes change in habitat and feeding systems, alteration of fodder quality and quantity, change in yields, quantity and type of product, increased competition for resources and modifications in ecosystem (Howden,2008; Ghahramani and Moore, 2013; Kebede,2016). As milk yield in dairy cattle has risen, and growth rates and leanness in pigs and poultry have increased, the animal’s metabolic heat production has increased and their capacity to tolerate high temperatures and climate change has declined (Zumbach et al., 2008).

PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS

Climate change or mostly heat stress alters the physiology of livestock leading to endocrine imbalance, reduced reproduction rate increased mortality (Dash et al., 2016). With increasing milk yield in dairy cattle, growth rates and leanness in pigs and poultry, metabolic heat production has increased and the capacity to tolerate elevated temperatures has declined (Hoffman, 2010). High temperatures also increase animals’ water requirements and reduce their appetites and feed intakes (NRC, 1981). Extreme heat waves already kill many feedlot animals in countries such as the United States of America (Hatfield et al., 2008). With added climate change the animals mostly enters negative energy balance, reduction in blood glucose level, decreased nutrient absorption and ends up using 40% of the energy for maintenance alone. In dairy cattle there is reduction in milk production and quantity of milk protein and solid not fat (SNF) decreases (Fenwick et al., 2008). Animals direct their energy toward milk production, making them vulnerable to extremely high temperatures (Dikmen et al., 2013).It has also led to decreased conception rates, low intensity and duration of oestrus, reduced libido and lower concentration of semen. There also occurs increased potassium loss through skin, increased sweating and increased urinary sodium excretion (Marai et al., 2009). Reproduction efficiency of both livestock sexes may be affected by heat stress. It affects oocyte growth and quality (Barati et al., 2008; Ronchi et al., 2001), impairment of embryo development, and pregnancy rate (Hansen, 2007; Nardone et al., 2010; Wolfenson et al., 2000). Cow fertility may be compromised by increased energy deficits and heat stress (De Rensis and Scaramuzzi, 2003; King et al., 2006). Heat stress has also been associated with lower sperm concentration and quality in bulls, pigs, and poultry (Karaca et al., 2002; Kunavongkrita et al., 2005; Mathevon et al., 1998).

NUTRITIONAL STRESS

Increased ambient temperature or climate change affects feed intake in livestock. Thermal stress has direct effect on appetite, there is decreased rumen motility and increased water intake resulting in gut fill, lower volume of saliva and impaired buffering action leading to acidosis (Wilson et al.,1998; West, 2002; Nardone, 2010; Kumar et al., 2011). Stress affects carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and thus partitioning of nutrients towards the mammary gland, under the influence of endogenous somatotropin, which is naturally increased during periods of negative energy balance (Bauman and Currie, 1980). This response alters post-absorptive carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, independently of reduced feed intake through coordinated changes in fuel supply and utilization by multiple tissues (Baumgard et al., 2014). As climate is drastically changing and has become more variable, the feeding habit of different species has altered. Indirect effects of climate change that includes change in feed resources linked to the carrying capacity of rangelands and buffering abilities of ecosystems with competitive demands of food, feed and fuel will result in modifying animal diets and compromise the ability of small holders to manage feed deficits (Renaudeau et al., 2012).

DISEASE STRESS

Climate not only affects livestock and human beings but also vectors, pathogens, hosts and host pathogen interactions. It also affects the spatial distribution of disease outbreaks, their timings and intensity (Gallana et al., 2013). Small spatial or seasonal changes in disease distribution may lead to rapid spread of pathogens or even may expose naive livestock population to new diseases (Patz et al., 2003). Such livestock population lack resistance or acquired immunity to new diseases or pathogens resulting in more serious clinical diseases. Climate affects pathogen development time and survival. Long summer increases number of pathogens life cycle and ability to mutate (NRC, 2004). Climate change has thus resulted in increased disease susceptibility in livestock. Temperature increases could accelerate the growth of pathogens and/or parasites that live part of their life cycle outside of their host, which negatively affects livestock (Harvell et al., 2002; Karl et al., 2009; Patz et al., 2000). Climate change may induce shifts in disease spreading, outbreaks of severe disease or even introduce new diseases, which may affect livestock that are not usually exposed to these types of diseases (Thornton et al., 2010). So evaluating disease dynamics and livestock adaptation will be important to maintain their resilience.

CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK TO FOOD SECURITY

Livestock plays an important role in Indian economy over years. About 20.5 million people depend upon livestock for their livelihood now. Livestock contributed 18% to the income of small farm households as against an average of 14% for all rural households (BAHS, 2016). Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural community. It also provides direct employment to about 8.8% of the population in India (DAHD, 2015). Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India especially the resource poor persons who maintain few heads of animals (FAO, 2010). Cows and buffaloes if in milk will provide regular income to the livestock farmers through sale of milk and also food security. Small ruminants like sheep and goat serve as sources of income during emergencies to meet exigencies like marriages, treatment of sick persons, children education, and repair of houses and also serve like mobile banks and assets which provide economic security to the owners(FAO, 2006).Agriculture being seasonal in nature could provide employment for maximum of 180 days in a year, but the landless and less land people depend upon livestock for utilizing their labour during lean agricultural season(FAO, 2009a).Livestock systems are also credited with providing environment services that includes promoting soil health and thereby helping to capture atmospheric carbon and mitigate climate change (FAO, 2009b).

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY

Livestock products are an important agricultural commodity for global food security because they provide 17% of global kilocalorie consumption and 33% of global protein consumption (Rosegrant et al., 2001). The livestock sector contributes to the livelihoods of one billion of the poorest population in the world and employs close to 1.1 billion people (Hurst et al., 2005). There is a growing demand for livestock products, and its rapid growth in developing countries has been deemed the ‘‘livestock revolution” (Thornton, 2010; Wright et al., 2012).Over 50% of the bovine population is located in the tropics. It has been estimated that heat stress causes severe economic loss in approximately 60% of the dairy farms around the world (Wolfenson et al., 2000). The magnitude of the effect of heat stress on reproduction in dairy cattle is increasing as higher milk yield leaves the animals more susceptible to the deleterious effects of heat stress (Al-Katanani et al., 1999, Gaughan, 2002). Significant negative impacts have been implied with medium-term to long term effects on livestock population due to change in climatic conditions. It is predicted to reduce yields by 4.5 to 9%, depending on the magnitude and distribution of global warming (FAO, 2013). Since agriculture makes up roughly 16% of India’s GDP, A 4.5 to 9% negative impact on production implies cost to be roughly up to 1.5% of GDP per year. It is also estimated that annual loss in milk production due to heat stress is nearly 2 % of the total milk production in India (Chauhan & Ghosh, 2015). The negative impact of temperature rise on total milk production for India has been estimated about 1.6 million tonnes by 2020 and more than 15 million tonnes by 2050 (Srivastava, 2010). The impact will be more on high producing animals. Hence there is an urgent need to identify the resilient breeds of livestock to fulfill the demand of milk and milk products for ever growing human population in changing scenario of climate change or global warming.

RESILIENCE OF INDIAN LIVESTOCK TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Different species and breeds differ greatly in the extent to which they can tolerate climatic extremes. For instance, a number of studies (Burns et al., 1997; Goddard, 2009) have revealed differences in heat tolerance among cattle breeds and cross-breeds. Tropical breeds tend to have better heat tolerance than breeds from temperate zones (Aggarwal and Upadhyay, 1997; Patel, 1997; Upadhyay et al., 2008a). Indian livestock are adapted to climate by morphological, physiological, vegetation and environment. There is wide variation in adaptability between breeds and between animals within the same breed (Singh and Bhattacharya, 1990; Singh et al., 1992; Singh and Saxena, 1995).They have the desired traits to adapt to stressful environment conditions as well as stressors and thus maintain substantial level of production.

MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Indian livestock breeds are well adapted to soil, plant and climatic conditions that prevail in different agro climatic zones. Zebu breeds having small size and low body weight, small barrel shaped body and slender legs, with a hump and dewlap. Most of the breeds developed for draught purpose long legs with articulate joint provide ample capacity to run and swiftly move even under moist soils (Upadhyay et al., 1992). The non-descript cattle of India have adapted to thermally stressful conditions by reducing metabolic rate, heart rate and high sweating capacity due to their genotype environment interaction (Upadhyay et al., 2008b).

The better adaptation to these environments by Bos indicus cattle is primarily related to the greater sweating rates due to higher density and larger perimeter of sweat glands, quick transfer of metabolic heat to the skin and due to a less tissue resistance and less hair coat resistance to heat loss (Dikmen et al., 2008). These characteristics permit these cattle to maintain body temperature more efficiently than Bos taurus breeds. At increased core body temperatures; there is increase in glucose and amino acid oxidation, decrease in fatty acid metabolism, alteration in endocrine system and activation of the stress response genes to environmental heat loads (Upadhyay et al., 2008b). As compared to temperate cattle breeds (Bos taurus), zebu cattle breeds (Bos indicus) including Indian breeds can better withstand high temperatures (Seif et al., 1979; Srivastva and Sidhu, 1979; Singh and Mishra, 1980; Lemerle and Goddard, 1986; Khan, 1986; Meirelles et al., 1999). They experience less severe reduction in feed intake (Allen et al., 1963; Johnston et al.,1958; Seif et al., 1979), growth rate (Rajaratne et al., 1983), milk yield (Johnson, 1965; DeVillalobos et al.,1975), work capacity (Upadhyay and Madan,1987; Carvalho et al., 1995) and reproductive function (Johnston et al., 1963;Skinner and Louw,1966; Rocha et al.1998; Barros 2002;Eberhardt, 2005)in response to heat stress. Studies conducted by Kumar et al. (2009) on Sahiwal and Sahiwal-Holstein cross cattle have revealed that during hot dry summer and under direct sun exposure, Sahiwal cattle are able to withstand extra environmental heat loads due to their capacity to increase skin evaporative losses (Mandal et al., 2002). The crossbreds exhibit more distress symptoms like open mouth panting, tongue protrusion, profuse salivation and restlessness compare to indigenous cattle. The ability of Sahiwal cattle to increase evaporative cooling at higher temperatures without increasing their respiratory frequency much is an important factor in establishing compared with the heat tolerance of Sahiwal-Holstein crossbreds (Singh and Upadhyay, 2009). Indigenous cattle breeds of India having special adaptive mechanisms to deal with extra heat loads of tropical climate, it facilitate easy transfer of heat from body without much loss of moisture are unique in Zebu and other livestock species in addition to mechanism, that conserve energy for body maintenance at high temperatures(Singh and Upadhyay, 2009). The ability of the animals to maintain normal body temperatures by cutaneous and respiratory heat dissipation plays a predominant role in adaptation of cattle in hot climate (Gebremedhin and Wu, 2001). They are able to maintain body core temperature until skin surface temperature exceeds 35°C (Pollard et al., 2005). The water recycling and economy in these animals is much more that give them higher capacity to dehydrate and withstand higher thermal stress. Some of the Zebu breeds like Tharparkar, Nagori and Sahiwal well adopted to hot dry desert conditions are able to reduce their metabolic requirements to minimum and conserve energy for diversion to products (milk/work) without extra energy expenditure (Upadhyay et al., 2008b). Taking advantage of heat adapting abilities of cattle breeds from our country, like Kankrej, Krishna Valley, Nellore, Ongole and Gir, have been used extensively in breeding programmes designed to evolve cattle suited for tropical areas in North and South American countries besides Australia since 18th century (Johnston et al., 1958, Bhushan 2006).

ADAPTATION TO THE VEGETATION AND ENVIRONMENT

Zebu cattle are superior to European cattle in their capacity to digest food because of differences in the rates of fermentation in the rumen. Zebu had higher fermentation rates and could utilize the low protein coarse feeds and fodders that are available under tropical conditions (Upadhyay et al., 2008b). Indian zebu breeds are tolerant to foot rot and mastitis than European breeds and are also resistant to many parasitic and viral diseases that affect Taurus cattle, as their skin thickness is more and capacity to invade through by many parasites is reduced it makes them more resistant to vector borne diseases (Dowling, 1955). Tropical buffalo skin surface attain high temperature during direct solar radiation in summer and rainy season, their long wallowing hours to alleviate thermal loads, in water and mud kill many ectoparasites (Upadhyay et al., 2007b). Analysis of Temperature Humidity Index (THI) in relation to habitat of cattle breeds indicate that indigenous or non-descriptive animals, due to their better adaptive capacity and ability to cop up with feed scarcity or harsh environmental conditions, predominantly are distributed in high THI zones (Bahanova et al., 2007).

SELECTION OF LIVESTOCK FOR CLIMATE RESILIENCE

Animal genetic resources (AnGr) are critical for ensuring global food security. Two-third of India’s population directly or indirectly depends on livestock for their livelihood, energy protein and critical energy requirements (DAHD, 2012). With increasing demand and competition for animal products, diversity of animal genetic resources is necessary to ensure adaptation potential in times of uncertainty. Climate change is drastic and is expected to be a major force testing residence of global food production systems. India being a country with varied climatic condition and agro climatic zones has a wide animal genetic resource which can survive and flourish in changing climate (FAO, 2007, 2009, 2011). Having diverse animal genetic resources will allow for more opportunities to match breeds to a changing climate or to replace populations hit by severe climatic events such as droughts or floods. Preparation for these transformations will require a significant research commitment and genomics will play a role in the genetic measures taken for adaptation of livestock to climate change (Hansen, 2007; Groeneveld et al., 2010; Marai and Habeeb, 2010) Adaptation to climate change is unlikely to be achieved with a single strategy (Hoffmann, 2010). Many local breeds adapt well to harsh climatic conditions but lack of technology, unscientific selection and breeding for more productivity has led to decline in indigenous breeds of livestock. Breeding for climate change adaptation or mitigation will not be that much fundamentally different from existing breeding policy but problems related to measuring the actual genetic worth of indigenous must be overcome by new technologies (Hoffmann, 2013; Fourcada and Hoffman, 2014).Selection for breeds with effective thermoregulatory control will be needed. This includes inclusion of traits associated with thermal tolerance, body coat, colour, hardiness and feeding efficiency (Gibbs et al., 2009). The use of multi-species and multi-breed herds is one strategy that many traditional livestock farmers use to maintain high diversity in on-farm niches and to buffer against climatic and economic adversities (Hoffmann, 2003; FAO, 2009b). Such traditional diversification practices are useful for adaptation to climate change. Seo & Mendelsohn (2007, 2008) modeled that small farms in developing countries were found more climate change resilient due to their more diverse species portfolios. In the last few decades the selection and breeding policy is more oriented towards production and yield ignoring key traits for resilience and longetivity but now the obvious option is to breed for traits associated with superior productivity and resilience in conditions expected to occur as a result of climate change such as drought and heat tolerance. The best method of reducing the impact of stressful climatic condition is to improve productivity and animal welfare is by breeding animals that are productive in the presence of that stressful condition without any managerial interventions (Barker, 2009; FAO, 2009b). The rapid development of genomic tools now allows analysis of functional genomic regions with potential associations with adaptation (Qian et al., 2013) Genomic selection has the potential to expedite both pure and crossbreeding programmes for adaptation, assuming phenotypes are available (Hayes et al., 2009b;Hayes et al., 2012); programs for performance recording in developing countries are thus needed. Realistic approach to improve the Indian livestock breeds is through selection and it may start with single nucleus herd. Genetic improvement programmes targeting adaptive traits in high output and performance traits in locally adapted breeds should be considered (West, 2002). Selection for heat tolerance in high output breeds based on rectal temperature measurements and inclusion of temperature humidity index shows promising results (Finocchiaro et al. 2005; Bohmanova et al.2007; Dikmen & Hansen 2009). Use of reproductive technologies, improved characterization of adaptive traits and strategic crossbreeding and upgrading with indigenous breeds could be incorporated into the breeding policy for better results and to create climate resilient herd. Sires whose daughters shows better productivity potential in changing climatic conditions can be used for further breeding programmes. Possible synergies between plant and animal breeding need to be better developed (Mulder et al., 2006; Hayes et al., 2009a). However speed of artificial selection depends on genetic factors, selection procedures and accuracy of phenotyping. Breeding for improved climate resilience requires technology, skills, conservation and exchange of animal genetic resources (Hoffmann, 2013).

ADOPTION OF GOOD ANIMAL HUSBANDRY PRACTICES

In tropical and subtropical regions, heat stress, if not properly managed, can have a significant deteriorating impact on the production and health of dairy cattle and buffaloes. Due to the increased heat production along with accumulation, cooling capability of the animal are compromised because of environmental conditions thus add heat load in the animals even to the extent that body temperature rises, intake declines and ultimately the productivity decreases(Singh and Upadhyay, 2009;Upadhyay and Madan,1987;Upadhyay et al.,2008b).

FEEDING STRATEGIES UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Heat stressed cattle eat less frequently during hotter hours so feeding during cooler times of the day is one option. Water intake is vital for milk production, but it is also essential for thermal homeostasis. Cold drinking water in rumen increases feed intake by 24% in indigenous cattle, it also helps in lowering both rectal and tympanic membrane temperatures (Bianca, 1964; Harris and Barney, 1992; Dracley, 1999). Drinking water has pronounced effect on animal comfort by direct cooling in the reticulo-rumen and by serving as the primary vehicle for heat transfer and dissipation through sweating and panting. The heat-stressed cow is prone to rumen acidosis and many of the lasting effects of warm weather which can probably be traced back to low rumen pH (Niles et al., 1980; Schneider et al., 1986) during the summer months in which high energy feeds i.e. fats are to be increased and fibre which is culprit for increasing heat increment has to be restricted. Nutritional technologies such as formation of calcium soaps of fat via bypass fat helps in maintaining the level of milk production in lactating cows and buffaloes during hot and humid season(Kundu et al., 2010), when the animals are unable to consume enough energy which leads to drastic reduction in milk yield. In milk production system where considerable forage is incorporated into diets, addition of lipids might be one of the ameliorative measures to maintain production by maintaining the energy levels of animals during heat stress. Feeding forages in a Total Mixed Ration (TMR) is recommended during heat stress, so that livestock consume sufficient forage intake relative to grain and concentrates when given a choice (Shojaeian et al., 2007). Hot weather also increases the need for certain minerals (Harris, 1992). Animals reduce their voluntary feed intake during thermal stress and therefore the mineral intake may be less than optimum required for productivity. Also, associated nutritionalphysiological ramifications may affect macro mineral needs (Schneider et al., 1986). Jenkinson and Mabon (1973) noted marked increases in rates of loss of Na, Mg, Ca and C1, but not P and significant correlations of these losses with sweating rate. However to alter the microclimate of an animal effectively through housing or environmental modification, we must consider altering one or more of the following factors: temperature or emissivity of the surrounding; air temperature; air velocity; air vapour pressure; radiation or shade factors; and conductivity of surfaces that animals might contact.

SITE SELECTION AND HOUSING

In tropical and sub-tropical climate animal shelters are designed to curtail the heat load on animals from external macro-environment and providing congenial microenvironment in animal houses. Design, height and orientation of shelters, choice of roofing material, provision of open space for ventilation and space per animal are some of the important aspects to attain cooler microenvironment (IPCC, 2014). Structures or trees can markedly reduce wind-speed, and can be beneficial to the survival of exposed animals (especially newborn) however wind breaks have an importance much beyond these benefits, especially in the tropical and subtropical areas. Windbreak acts as a barrier lowering the wind speed near the ground surface, deviating and splitting the air stream, the protection achieved is determined by the configuration, height, density and thickness of the trees in a belt Open or partially open ventilated shelters (Ward, 2012) Enclosed shelters are not recommended for tropical climates because the decreased natural air velocity and sanitation. In temperature, partially enclosed shelter can reduce the thermal radiation received by animals during hot weather (IPCC, 2014).

CHALLENGES AND INITIATIVES

The livestock sector has been blamed for contributing more to global climate change than the automobile industry (FAO, 2006).India has one of the highest livestock population in the world and being a country with large population and most of them being poor and illiterate, it is difficult to implement uniform plan for better productivity under changing climatic conditions. Farmers with small land holdings and low income form a major obstacle in front of the government to implement new programmes and initiatives. However the government is trying its best to improve production The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources (FAO, 2007b), adopted by the Interlaken International Technical Conference and endorsed by the FAO Conference in 2007, is the first internationally agreed framework specifically for the management of livestock biodiversity in the era of climate change. Indian government has taken several steps to ameliorate climate change which includes National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during 2010-2011 for the twelve year plan with the objectives to enhance the resilience of Indian Agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic variability through development and application of improved production and risk management technologies under ICAR (DAHD, 2012).National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) funded by World Bank under the umbrella of ICAR, New Delhi initiated the activities for capacity building to undertake basic and strategic research in the frontier areas of agriculture and allied sciences to meet challenges in technology development in the immediate and predictable future.

The Impact of Heat Stress on Livestock

• Heat Stress Basics
• Definition: Heat stress occurs when livestock are exposed to high temperatures and humidity levels that exceed their ability to regulate body temperature. This condition can lead to a range of physiological and behavioral responses.
• Consequences: Heat stress can result in reduced feed intake, lower milk and meat production, impaired reproduction, and increased susceptibility to diseases.

Factors Affecting Heat Stress

• Temperature and Humidity: The combination of high temperature and humidity exacerbates the effects of heat stress. Livestock are less able to dissipate heat through evaporative cooling when humidity is high.
• Breed and Species: Different livestock species and breeds have varying degrees of heat tolerance. Some breeds are better adapted to hot climates than others.
• Housing and Ventilation: Proper housing and ventilation systems can help mitigate the effects of heat stress by providing shade and airflow.
• Strategies for Mitigating Heat Stress
• Shade and Shelter: Providing access to shade and shelter can help livestock find relief from the heat.
• Water Supply: Ensuring a consistent and clean water supply is crucial to prevent dehydration and maintain body temperature.
• Ventilation and Cooling Systems: Implementing ventilation and cooling systems in barns and shelters can help reduce indoor temperatures.
• Proper Management: Adjusting feeding and milking schedules to cooler parts of the day, such as early morning and late evening, can alleviate heat stress.

The Effects of Cold Stress on Livestock

• Cold Stress Basics
• Definition: Cold stress occurs when livestock are exposed to temperatures below their thermoneutral zone, leading to increased energy expenditure to maintain body temperature.
• Consequences: Cold stress can result in reduced growth, milk production, and reproductive performance.

Factors Affecting Cold Stress

• Temperature and Wind Chill: The combination of low temperatures and wind chill can significantly increase the effects of cold stress.
• Coat Type and Thickness: Livestock with thicker coats are better suited to cold climates, while those with thinner coats may require additional protection.
• Age and Health: Young and elderly animals, as well as those with health issues, are more susceptible to cold stress.

Strategies for Mitigating Cold Stress

• Adequate Shelter: Providing well-insulated shelter can help livestock stay warm and protect them from extreme cold.
• Bedding Material: Clean and dry bedding, such as straw or hay, can provide insulation and warmth.
• Additional Feed: Increasing the feed provided to livestock during cold weather can help them generate more body heat.
• Adequate Water Supply: Ensure access to unfrozen water, as dehydration can exacerbate the effects of cold stress.

III. The Role of Nutrition in Livestock Performance

Nutritional Needs

• Energy: Livestock require an adequate energy supply to maintain body temperature and support growth, reproduction, and lactation.
• Protein: Protein is essential for muscle growth, immune function, and milk production in dairy animals.
• Vitamins and Minerals: Adequate vitamins and minerals are necessary to support various physiological processes, including bone health, immunity, and reproduction.
• Climate-Related Challenges
• Feed Quality: Climate conditions can impact the quality and availability of forage and feed, which can affect the nutritional intake of livestock.
• Water Scarcity: Droughts and water scarcity can limit the availability of drinking water and reduce feed quality.
• Extreme Temperatures: Extreme temperatures can increase energy requirements, as livestock need to expend more energy to regulate their body temperature.

Strategies for Maintaining Nutrition

• Balanced Diet: Ensure livestock receive a balanced diet that meets their energy, protein, vitamin, and mineral requirements.
• Forage Management: Proper management of pastures and forage can help ensure a consistent and high-quality feed supply.
• Water Accessibility: Ensure that livestock have continuous access to clean and uncontaminated water.

Disease Susceptibility in Changing Climates

• Climate-Related Disease Concerns
• Vector-Borne Diseases: Climate change can alter the distribution of disease vectors, such as ticks and mosquitoes, leading to increased disease transmission.
• Parasitic Infections: Changes in temperature and humidity can affect the prevalence and distribution of parasitic infections in livestock.
• Waterborne Diseases: Altered precipitation patterns can lead to water contamination, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.

Disease Prevention and Control

• Vaccination: Implementing vaccination programs can help protect livestock from specific diseases.
• Vector Control: Implementing measures to control disease vectors, such as insecticides and habitat management, can reduce the risk of vector-borne diseases.
• Monitoring and Surveillance: Regular monitoring and disease surveillance can help identify and address disease outbreaks early.

Adaptation Strategies for Livestock in Changing Climates

• Breeding and Genetic Selection
• Heat Tolerance: Breeding for heat-tolerant livestock breeds can help improve performance in hot climates.
• Cold Tolerance: Selecting breeds adapted to cold climates can enhance livestock performance in such environments.
• Housing and Infrastructure
• Climate-Controlled Facilities: Investing in climate-controlled barns and shelters can provide a comfortable environment for livestock.
• Shade and Windbreaks: Providing natural or constructed shade and windbreaks can mitigate temperature extremes.
• Feed Management
• Adjusted Diets: Modifying diets to meet specific nutritional needs during extreme temperatures can help maintain livestock performance.
• Improved Forage and Pasture Management: Implementing practices that enhance forage quality and availability can support livestock nutrition.
• Water Management
• Water Storage: Developing water storage facilities can ensure a consistent water supply even during water scarcity.
• Water Quality: Regular water quality testing can help identify and address waterborne disease risks.
• Regional Variations in Climate Impact
• Arctic and Subarctic Regions
• Cold Stress: Livestock in these regions are highly adapted to cold stress, but extreme temperatures and wind chill can still pose challenges.
• Short Growing Season: Short growing seasons limit forage availability, requiring feed management strategies.
• Desert and Arid Regions
• Heat Stress: High temperatures and arid conditions pose a significant risk of heat stress.
• Water Scarcity: Droughts and limited water sources require water management solutions.
• Tropical and Subtropical Regions
• Heat Stress: Livestock in tropical regions are prone to heat stress, which can impact productivity.
• Disease Vectors: High temperatures and humidity support the proliferation of disease vectors.
• Temperate Regions
• Seasonal Variability: Temperate regions experience seasonal variations that require adaptation strategies for both cold and hot periods.
• Forage Quality: The quality of forage can vary with changing seasons, affecting livestock nutrition.

 Conclusion

The impact of climate on livestock performance is a multifaceted issue that varies across regions, breeds, and species. Climate change has introduced new challenges for livestock farming, from heat stress and cold stress to changes in disease patterns. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are essential for maintaining livestock health and productivity.

Livestock farmers, supported by governments and agricultural organizations, must prioritize strategies such as breeding for heat and cold tolerance, implementing climate-controlled facilities, managing water resources, and adapting feed management practices. Additionally, monitoring disease risks and addressing vector-borne diseases are critical components of livestock management in a changing climate.As the world continues to grapple with the effects of climate change, sustainable and climate-resilient livestock farming practices are crucial for ensuring food security and the well-being of livestock, farmers, and consumers alike.

To sum up, generation of new technologies, policies that support rational use of natural resources, sharing of global best practices and capacity building of farmers will go a long way towards making agriculture climate smart. The XIII Agricultural Science Congress with focus on Climate Smart Agriculture, jointly organized by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi and the University of Agricultural Sciences, from 21 to 24 February 2017 at Bengaluru is a testimony, both, to the gravity of the impact of climate change on agriculture and, the concerted action deployed by governments and institutions in addressing these challenges (Venkateswarlu, 2017). But this is just the beginning and if India wants to reach its production goals for sustainable food systems in a changing climate scenario more work needs to be done especially in the livestock sector by promoting climate resilient breeds production systems to endure the vagaries of climate.

Compiled  & Shared by- This paper is a compilation of groupwork provided by the

Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)

 Image-Courtesy-Google

 Reference-On Request.

Impact of Climate Change on Livestock