ENDOPARASITIC DISEASES IN DOG AND THEIR CONTROL MEASURES
Mitra Ranjan Panda
Deptt. of Veterinary Parasitology
College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry., O.U.A.T., Bhubaneswar
INTRODUCTION
The pets, particularly dog is a loyal companion of man since time immemorial. A dog is reliable, affectionate and also having a sense of consistent routine life. It is a great stimulus for laughter, play, exercise and keep their masters active. Presence of this animal or other pets offer opportunities for developing a new life style. A pet helps alleviate the suffering of people in distress, depression, loneliness, anxiety. Humans are able to form a strong emotional bond with the dog and vice-versa. A guide dog is the eyes of its blind owner and act as a trusted companion to bridge the gap with outside world. Animal assisted therapy or pet therapy can work wonderfully on the minds and act as occupational therapy. However, a dog, in order to render these useful service, must be in a good state of health. Like other animals dogs also suffer from many diseases including parasitic infections.
Endoparasites or internal parasites are those which occur in different internal organs, body cavities and blood vascular systems include helminthes and protozoa. Most of the endoparasites, though are not fatal, have long standing debilitating effects on pet dogs which affect their normal activities and performance. More important is, a good number of endoparasites those infect the dogs are zoonotic in nature and potentially harmful to the dog owners, particularly children. Therefore, it is important to know the endoparasites which infect the dogs, their harmful effects on dogs as well as on human beings, mode of infection, prompt diagnosis and effective treatment for successful control.
HELMINTHES INFECTING DOGS :
TREMATODES Opisthorchis viverreni
Heterophyes heterophyes Clonorchis sinensis
Metagonimus yokogawai Echinochasmus perfoliatus
Apophallus donicum Artyfechinostomum sufrartyfex
Cryptocotyle lingua Paragonimus westermani
Cryptocotyle concava Paragonimus kellicoti
Cryptocotyle jejuna Schistosoma spindale
Opisthorchis tenuicolli Schistosoma incognitum
Nanophyetus salminicola
GENERAL MORPHOLOGY:
- Body is flat/leaf like (Opisthorchis),may be globular with thick fleshy or slender/cylindrical (Schistosome).
- These are usually hermaphrodites ,but in schistosome sexes are
GENERAL LIFE CYCLE
These are heteroxenous and have indirect life cycle. Adults are endoparasites of dog.
Eggs are passed out with the faeces. If they land in water they develop into a swimming larva (the miracidium) that emerges to penetrate a snail.
A number of asexual reproductions occur in the snail producing a large number of cercariae.
The snail is eaten by 2nd IH (a crustacean : crayfish usually) in which develops the metacercariae that infect the dog when eaten. These then penetrate the gut into the body cavity, reach site of predilection.
There may be involvement of more than one intermediate hosts (IH). 1st IH : may be snails of various species.
2nd IH: may be snail, tadpole of frog, fish, larva of nematoceran flies, crustacean etc.
Infective stages (metacercaria) ingested by dog through contaminated feed/drinking water or ingestion of 2nd IH.
On reaching digestive tract of dog, metacercaria excyst and release immature flukes which may migrate to site of predilection.
In family Schistosomatidae, furcocercous cercariae penetrate the skin of dog.
Digestive Tract
Alaria americana is a common trematode in the intestine of dogs. It is also called Alaria canis .
Nanophyetus salmincola The trematode itself is not a major problem as far as dog parasites go but it transmits a rickettsial organism (Neorickettsia helminthoeca) that causes “salmon poisoning” disease.
Enteritis, bloody stool and lymph node enlargement occur.
There are a number trematodes which rarely occur in the GIT of dogs such as Mesostephanus, Echinochasmus, Apophallus, Cryptocotyle, Phagicola, Plagiorchis and Sellacotyle.
Liver:
Opisthorchis and Metorchis spp. live in the bile ducts and gall bladder.
Opisthorchis tenuicollis : Dogs are infected by eating the fish.
In large numbers they can cause thickening and blockage of the bile ducts .
Respiratory System
Paragonimus kellicotti and Paragonimus westermani are the important lung flukes. These flukes are fairly large, fleshy trematodes with a spinose skin and are found in cysts in the lungs.
Leucocytic infiltration and fibrous tissue formation around hazel nut shaped cysts. Cirrhosis, cystic dilation of bronchi ,pseudopneumonia, abscess formation, peritonitis and bronchitis are the common pathological lesions. Rusty coloured sputum is the main clinical sign.
Blood and Lymph
- Schistosomes: Schistosoma incongnitum, lives in the veins draining the intestines of
- Cercariae are mobile and when they break out of the snail they swim about until they find a good host and penetrate the
- These larval trematodes get into the circulatory system and move to the veins in which the adults
- These worms are either male or female and spend most of their adult lives in permanent The female is held in a long groove called the gynecophoric canal along the length of the male’s body.
- Schistosoma spindale: occurs in the veins draining the intestines of dogs in India and A similar parasite called Heterobilharzia americana is found in the veins of the gut in dogs and a variety of wild carnivores in the southeastern United States.
- These cause phlebitis in the mesenteric veins, haemorrhage in intestinal mucosa, profuse diarohhea/dysentery, dehydration, anaemia, hypoalbuminaemia,
CLINICAL SIGNS
Clinical signs differs as per the site of predilection and severity of infection.
DIAGNOSIS
By finding eggs in faeces, secretion, excretion, blood etc.
TREATMENT
- symptomatic
2 Anthelmintic: Praziquantel,Niclofolan, Niclosamide, Albendazole, Triclabendazole etc can be prescribed in appropriate dose.
CONTROL MEASURES
- Dogs should not be fed with raw/salted/improperly cooked fishes. Salted fish should not be fed within 10
- Freezing and cooking of all fish used for food is essential .
- Eradicate snail IH by spraying CuSo4 @1:150 million parts in Other molluscicides are sodium pentachlorophenate, di-nitro-o-cyclohexyl-phenol@3-5:1 million parts of water, pentachlorophenol,2-4,dinitro-6-phenyl phenol.
- Treatment of human night soil with ammonium sulphate to kill fluke Paragonimus westermani and Paragonimus kellicoti :
- Raw fresh-water crustacean should not be fed to animal host.Schistosoma spindale and Schistosoma incognitum
- Immunization against incognitum using 60Co irradiated cercariae.
- Treatment of infected persons and animals.
- Biological control measures by predation by larval stages of Echinostomain snail IH,
- Microsporidial protozoa :Nosema eurytremae cause damage to intra-molluscan
- Competetion between molluscan species such as Helisoma to.eliminate Bulinus glabrata.
- Application of molluscide such as frescon, Bayluscide to water
- Increase the speed of water in irrigation channels as snail IH prefer slow moving or stationary
- Night soil treatmentby formentation for 25-45 days before allowed to water bodies.
Nanophyetus salminicola
- Prevention of consumption of raw /uncooked
- In accidental consumption apomorphine can be given within 3 hours of consumption.
- CESTODES
Includes following species
Dipylidium caninum Taenia hydatigena Taenia ovis
Taenia pisiformis Taenia multiceps Taenia serialis
Echinococcus granulosus Echinococcus vogeli Mesocestoides tenuis Diphyllobothrium latum
GENERAL MORPHOLOGY
Body is tape/ ribbon like without alimentary tract. Measures few mm to several cm.
Body consists of head(scolex),followed by unsegmented neck,and strobila having proglottids separated by transverse constrictions.
Scolex may have suckers (acetabula) with hooks.(class Eucestoda) or may have long,narrow,weakly muscular grooves ( bothria: in class Cotyloda).
These are hermaphrodite, metameric repetitionof reproductive organs. Posterior mature proglottids,packed with eggs are known as gravid proglottid. Self/cross fertilization occurs between proglottids.
GENERAL LIFE CYCLE
Life cycle is indirect,larval stage is known as metacestode. Development of larval stage require one or more IH. Metacestode may be classified as procercoid/plerocercoid/tetrathyridium/ cysticercoid/cysticercus/strobilocercus/coenurus/ hydatid.
1st IH: rodents, canines,herbivores, oribatid mite ( Mesocestoides t enuis) , crustacia (Diphyllobothrium latum),dog flea/dog louse (Dipylidium caninum).
2nd IH: dog,cat,mice,reptiles,birds,amphibia.
PATHOGENESIS AND CLINICAL SIGNS
- Digestive Tract: The dog-sheep tapeworm, Taenia hydatigena , a common dog parasites in sheep raising areas where dogs are fed sheep viscera or where they find sheep The intermediate host is an herbivore like sheep in which the bladder like cysticercus larva is found in the muscles and viscera. Sheep are infected by eating eggs on grass contaminated by the faeces of the dog in which tapeworm proglottids are shed. In dog prepatent period is 51days.in liver migration of young cysticerci cause haemmorrhagic and fibrotic tracts. Mature ones are not so harmful.
- Two species of Echinococcus infect dogs as a result of their having eaten raw meat from sheep, caribou, cattle, kangaroo or rodents. They are Echinococcus granulosus and multilocularis.
Humans are accidental hosts to the larval stage that is contained within large cysts spread throughout the internal organs including the liver, lungs, bones and brains. This is hydatid disease or hydatidosis. Rupture of cysts leads to anaphylactic reaction in man.
Another dog-sheep tapeworm is Multiceps multiceps. The adult tape worm looks like Taenia hydatigena but the larval form in the intermediate host such as sheep, cattle and goats is a bladder-like thing called a coenurus. Inside the coenurus are many small larvae, each of which will mature to an adult when eaten by the dog or any wild canids. The coenurus is located in the brain of the intermediate host.
4.Another species called Multiceps serialis infects The intermediate host for this one is a rabbit, hare or squirrel where the coenurus is in the brain or muscles.
5.Dipylidium caninum is a small tapeworm of
6.The broad fish tapeworm is a is a parasite of fish eating mammals including dogs. It is called Diphyllobothrium latum .Infections in dogs occurs by eating poorly cooked or raw
DIAGNOSIS
By finding eggs/gravid segments in faeces of animal.
By finding metacestode stage in various tissues /muscles/organs of the I.H.
TREATMENT
Praziquantel :5-7.5 mg/kg body wt. Niclosamide :75-100mg/kg bwt.
Mebendazole :22mg/kg bwt. For 3 days. Fenbendazole,albendazole and other combination CONTROL
Species:
• Prevention of dogs from taking raw offals /meat and infected small wild animals like rabbit, rat, mouse
- Do not allow dogs to defecate in parks, vegetable gardens, and grazing
• Immunization of dogs with irradiated Echinococcus granulosus protoscolices and secretory antigens from adults of Echinococcus granulosus grown in vitro.
- For Mesocestoides tenuis control of oribatid mites is
• Avoid feeding of raw offals/meat to dog.
- For Diphyllobothrium latum
• Dogs should not be fed raw fish .Proper cooking of fish before feeding to animal. C.NEMATODE
- Toxascaris leonine
- Toxocara canis
- Ancylostoma caninum
- Ancylostoma braziliense
- Filaroides osleri
- Thelazia callipaeda
- Thelazia lacrymalis
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- Spirocerca lupi
- Gnathostoma spinigerum
- Dirofilaria immitis
- Trichuris vulpis
- Capillaria plica
- Capillaria aerophila
- Dictophyma renale
- Oncicola canis
Morphology
- Body shape is elongated,cylindrical and tapering at both ends and not metamerically
- Cuticle may show variable
- Filariform / rhabdity form/ trichurid
- Sexes are In most species males bear cuticular expansion at posterior extremity known as bursa.
General life cycle
- In the life cycle of nematode ,it has 4 moults,successive stages are
- 1st stage larva(L1) 2) 2nd stage larva (L2) 3) 3rd stage larva (L3) 4) 4th stage larva (L4) and 5th stage e adult.
- First 3 stages are pre parasitic ,may be free living/ in intermediate
- Pre parasitic L3 stage is sheathed in old cuticle and called infective stage.( exception: in ascarid worms L2 stage present in the eggs are infective).
- In heteroxenous lifecycle the IH are: beetle,earth worm, snail, slug, gastropod, mollusc,house fly, stable fly, cockroach, grass hopper, isopod, cyclopes, mosquito, tabanid fly, oligochite, annelid
PATHOGENESIS AND CLINICAL SIGN
Digestive Tract:
The tissue nematode Spirocerca lupi may be in nodules in the esophagus, stomach or aorta of dogs where it may be rather benign. Worms are red in colour and coiled in a circle, hence the name. It may cause difficulty in swallowing if in the esophagus, or cause development of aneurysms if in the aorta. Both can cause the dog to be very sick. It may even cause development of malignant tumors. It is world wide but usually in warmer regions. The life cycle involves a dung eating beetle as intermediate host in which larvae develop and the dog is infected by ingesting the beetle. If beetles are eaten by an unsuitable host, the larvae encyst in the tissues and infect the dog when the transport host is eaten. In the dog, larvae penetrate the stomach wall, enter the arterial system and form the nodules in the aorta and adjacent tissues. The adults develop there.
The large ascarid nematode, Toxocara canis, is dog round worm. It causes one of the most important parasitic diseases of dogs, Toxocarosis. The life cycle is direct but transport hosts can be involved. Typically eggs are shed with the faeces and dogs or other mammalian hosts are infected by eating contaminated food. Eggs hatch in the intestine and larvae penetrate the gut wall, get into the venous system and thence to the liver where they develop. They then migrate to the heart and then the lungs. They develop further in the lungs, break out into the bronchioles and eventually get to the trachea and esophagus and are swallowed. In the gut they develop to the adult worm. This is the case in young pups. In older pups many larvae in the lungs get back into the circulatory system and migrate to all areas of the body where they encyst. They can stay here for a long time. Then, if they are in a female dog that has puppies, they can resume migration and infect the puppies through the placenta or the mammary glands.
Toxascaris leonina is another of the dog round worms that is very similar to Toxocara
and occurs in both dogs and cats.
Human can serve as transport host for T. canis. Larvae migrating through our tissues (visceral larva migrans) are responsible for the disease condition called Toxocarosis in humans.
Hookworm infection in dogs is another true parasitosis that can result from moderate to heavy loads of Ancylostoma caninum, A. brasiliense or Uncinaria stenocephala. The more serious pathogen is A. caninum. Death can quickly result from blood loss, especially in pups. Pups can be infected through the mother’s milk (transmammary transmission) because the life cycle is similar to that described for Toxocara as it involves a tissue and pulmonary migration. One major difference is that larvae actively penetrate the skin of the definitive host and get directly into the circulation from there. Hookworms are very common dog parasites and are also dog round worms, but not so large as the Ascarids.
Humans are susceptible to the larvae of hookworms that infect dogs and cats. Cutaneous larva migrans is caused by the larvae wandering around under our skin, usually cat hookworms.
Dogs also have Canine strongyloidosis due to Strongyloides stercoralis, and are infected with Trichinella spiralis and Trichuris.
Respiratory System:
The most common lung and bronchiole dog parasites are the migrating larvae of hookworms and Strongyloides which are dog round worms that mature in the small intestine but go through a lung migration before they get to their permanent home in the gut. They will cause respiratory problems.
Filaroides and Crenosoma are dog lungworms found in the trachea and lungs of dogs and other carnivores worldwide. Filaroides osleri forms nodules in the bronchi and trachea in which the adult worms are located. They shed eggs into the trachea which are coughed up and swallowed. Eggs pass out with the faeces and the next definitive host gets infected by accidentally eating food contaminated with the eggs containg infective larvae. the life cycle is direct. Crenosoma vulpis is another lungworm in dogs in Europe, China and eastern North America. Adults are in the bronchi and instead of eggs, they release mobile larvae which get swallowed and pass out with the faeces. These infect an intermediate host snail which is then eaten by the definitive host (the dog). Larvae then penetrate the gut wall into the blood vessels and are carried to the lungs where they breakout and mature in the bronchi.
Bronchial capillariasis due to Capillaria aerophila .
These dog roundworms are found in the trachea, bronchi and small bronchioles in dogs and other carnivores in Europe, Russia, Eurasia and North and South America. The thin worms similar in shape to the whipworms but are the same slender diameter for the full length. The life cycle is direct. There are other capillarid nematodes in the lungs and urinary bladder .
Blood and Lymph:
There are several species of filarid dog round worms that occur in dogs throughout the world. These are the heartworms and lymphatic worms since the adults live in the blood vessels of the heart or the lymph nodes and vessels. They all produce mobile larvae called microfilariae that are released into the blood stream. The life cycle requires an intermediate host which is usually a mosquitoe or other biting arthropod that picks up the microfilariae in a blood meal and then injects them into the next host it bites. Important heartworms are Dirofilaria and a couple of species of the genus Brugia that are residents of lymph nodes and vessels.
Dirofilaria immitis is the causative agent of heartworm disease in dogs in North America. It is transmitted from one host to another by mosquitoes and is a constant threat every year when mosquitoes are active. Permanent damage can be done to the heart and vessels as well as the lungs and liver. Acute cases may result in death.
Muscles and Tissues
Dipetalonema reconditum is found throughout the world and is very similar to the heartworm Dirofilaria. However, dog and cat fleas are the intermediate hosts. Adults of this dog parasite are found in connective tissue under the skin but the microfilariae are circulating in the blood. Another very similar dog round worm also found in subcutaneous connective tissue in dogs is Dracunculus insignis. It is found in North America and is similar to Dracunculus medinensis of humans (which also infects dogs).
Trichinella spiralis is an intestinal parasite, the larval forms are common in the flesh of dogs or other carnivores.
Urogenital System
Only two roundworms are in the urogenital system of the dog. The giant kidney worm Dioctophyma renale is found in the kidney and sometimes other organs. It is also found in many other mammals, including man.
A capillarid dog round worm similar to those in the bronchi and trachea, Capillaria plica is found wound through the mucosa of the urinary bladder.
DIAGNOSIS
- By finding characteristic egg/ larvae in body secretion,excretion ,fuids.
- From typical clinical
- Using trichinoscope in case of Trichinella
TREATMENT
Ascariosis :
Pyrantel pamoate @orally 5-10 mg/kg bwt.:
Pyrantel ebonate: @.14.4 mg/kg bwt Doramectin :@ 200µg/ kg bwt s/c or i/m. Piperazine :@orally 200-300 mg/kg bwt. Fendazole, benzimidazole compounds.
Diethyl carbamazine @50mg/kg bwt.
Hook worm diseases Albendazole @5-7.5 mg/kg bwt. Fenbendazole@ 50 mg/kg bwt. Levamizole @7.5 mg/kg bwt.
Spirocercosis
Tetramizole @15 mg/kg bwt. Oxfenbendazole orally @5 mg/kg bwt. Albendazole orally @5-7.5 mg/kg bwt. Dirofilariosis
Diethylecarbamazine @6.6mg/ kg bwt for 3-4 days by parenteral route. Milbemycin oxime@ 0.5 mg/kg bwt.orally.
Arsenicalthiacetarsamide @0.1ml/0.45kg bwt i/v bid for 2-3 days in case of adult worms. Levamisole @ 10mg /kg bwt orally for 15-20 days.
Dithiazanine iodide @ 2 mg/ 0.45kg bwt for 7 days.
CONTROL:
- Control of IH are recommended such as spraying of insecticide, Molluscide rodenticide, acaricide
- General hygiene measures and public education.
-
- Segregation and treatment of affected animal and periodic deworming should be done.
- Hervivores that act as IH should not be allowed to graze marshy land that contain snails and
Regular cleaning of animal sheds and proper disposal of carcass, excreta etc.
D. PROTOZOAN PARASITE
Trypanosoma rangeli Isospora neorivolta
Trypanosoma cruzi Isospora ohioensis
Trypanosoma congolense Sarcocystis cruzi
Trypanosoma suis Sarcocystis levinei
Trypanosoma evansi Toxoplasma gondii
Giardia canis Neospora caninum
Entamoeba histolytica Hepatozoon canis
Entamoeba coli Babesia canis
Entamoeba hartmanni Babesia gibsoni
Entamoeba gingivalis Babesia vogeli
Entamoeba canibuccalis Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Isospora burrowsi Balantidium coli
Isospora canis Ehrlichia canis
LIFE CYCLE STAGES
During its life cycle, a protozoan generally passes through several stages that differ in structure and activity.
Trophozoite is a general term for the active, feeding, multiplying stage of most protozoa.
In parasitic species this is the stage usually associated with pathogenesis.
In the hemoflagellates the terms amastigote, promastigote, epimastigote, and trypomastigote designate trophozoite stages that differ in the absence or presence of a flagellum and in the position of the kinetoplast associated with the flagellum.
A variety of terms are employed for stages in the Apicomplexa, such as tachyzoite and bradyzoite for Toxoplasma gondii. Other stages in the complex asexual and sexual life cycles seen in this phylum are the merozoite (the form resulting from fission of a multinucleate schizont) and sexual stages such as gametocytes and gametes.
Some protozoa form cysts that contain one or more infective forms. Multiplication occurs in the cysts of some species so that excystation releases more than one organism. For example, when the trophozoite of Entamoeba histolytica first forms a cyst, it has a single nucleus. As the cyst matures nuclear division produces four nuclei and during excystation four uninucleate metacystic amoebas appear.
Giardia lamblia has the same number of internal structures (organelles) as the trophozoite. However, as the cyst matures the organelles double and two trophozoites are formed. Cysts passed in stools have a protective wall, enabling the parasite to survive in the outside environment for a period ranging from days to a year, depending on the species and environmental conditions. Cysts formed in tissues do not usually have a heavy protective wall and rely upon carnivorism for transmission. Oocysts are stages resulting from sexual reproduction in the Apicomplexa. Some apicomplexan oocysts are passed in the feces of the host.
Babesia canis: If an infected dog is bitten by a tick, the parasites are taken in with the blood meal. These then first reproduce in the tick’s intestinal cells and then in the eggs being developed by the tick. When the tick eggs hatch and the larval ticks develop and begin feeding on a dog, they transmit the Babesia canis to it.
Coccidia of dog:(Isospora canis) 3 generations of schizonts develop beneath the epithelium of distal portion of lower third intestinal villi. Gamonts are found in the epithelial cells, sub epithelial connective tissue of intestinal villi. And mucosa of large intestine. The prepatent period is 9-11 days and patent period is about 4 weeks.
PATHOGENESIS:
The Digestive Tract
Protozoa can be found in the mouth, small and large intestines. The most common are the coccidia. Dogs have three different species of the coccidian parasite Isospora in the cells of the small intestine.
Heavy infections cause diarrhoea, bloody stools and occasionally dysentery.
Giardiasis: diarrhoea and dysentery is seen.
Amoebosis : Chronic infection is common. Parasite penetrate deep into mucosa and cause inverted flask shaped ulcer opening in to bowel lumen. Occasional abdominal pain, nausea,flatulence, irregular bowels,headache,and fatigue,dysentery with blood and mucus.Toxoplasmosis : fatal case seen in young dogs with concurrent infection/immunosupression.Intermittent fever, tonsillitis,dyspnoea, diarrhoea,vomiting,lesions in brain and spinal cord with progressive paresis.
Blood and Lymph
There are a few protozoan dog parasites found in the blood. There are flagellates (Trypanosoma) and sporozoans related to the blood parasites (Hepatozoon and Babesia). These are transmitted by ticks and are particularly important. Babesia canis occurs in dogs world wide but,the intermediate hosts or vectors are tropical or subtropical. The parasite is limited by distribution of the intermediate hosts..
DIAGNOSIS : based on clinical signs and presence of oocyst in faeces.
In case of blood protozoan diseases blood parameter changes along with microscopic finding of developmental stage confirm this.
TREATMENT
Amoebosis :
Metranidazole is the drug of choice@ 750 mg orally thrice daily for 5-10 days. Tinidazole is more effective.
Giardiasis:
Quinacrine:@50-100 mg/kg bwt bid for 2-3 days Chloroquin,diodoquin,metronidazole@ 250mg/kg bwt bid for 10 days Babesiosis :
Phenamidine isethionate@0.3mlof a 5% sol./kgbw (15 mg/kg bwt) s/c .repeat after 5 days Diminazine aceturate @3.5 mg/kg bwt s/c or i/m as single dose.
Imidocarb dipropionate@6 mg/kg bwt s/c or i/m as single dose. Quinoronium sulphate @2.5 mg/kg bwt as 0.5% sol. Through s/c route. Toxoplasosis:
Sulphadiazine and pyrimethamine
Trypanosomosis:
Quinapyramine (antrycide): 3mg/kg bwt as 10% aq.sol.
Suramins :3-5 ml of 10% sol. Followed by the same dose at 3-4 week interval. prophylactic dose: 0.3-0.5g/kg bwt.
Diminazene aceturate 3.5 mg/kg bwt. Phenathridine compound@1mg/kg bwt.
CONTROL:
- In case of coccidian infection, isolation of affected animal along with proper treatment is
- keeping away carnivores(dog) from animal houses, feed water and
- uncooked offal/meat should never be fed to carnivores(dogs). Freezing drastically or heating above 55•C for 20 can kill cysts in muscle/organs.
- Good hygiene and frequent check up help in control.
- Fly control measures should be taken.
