EUTHANASIA IN ANIMALS : AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

April 2, 2023

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EUTHANASIA IN ANIMALS : AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

“The time will come when men such as I will look upon the murder of animals as they now look on the murder of men.” —Leonardo da Vinci

This famous quote from Leonardo da Vinci perfectly reflects the current state of animals in our current society. Furthermore, it is a very typical situation of untold atrocities along with a major concern that can be primarily related to the welfare of animals. There is a situation in today’s state of affairs that sketches the science behind animal welfare as a major objective in terms of its scientific and ethical relevance. Wherein, we see that the scientific relevance deals with various reports we come across in various hypothetical programs, scientific papers and research outcomes. On the contrary, there is the more specified subject of ethical practices in relation to animals which tend to mainly focus on the treatment of animals and the degree of cruelty, associated with them. Then again, animal protection in the global society and local boundaries remains to be always evolving in terms of fruition of a higher grade of stringent laws and regulations, capped with corporate policies revolving around animal protection and most importantly trade agreements, both multi and bi-lateral which aim towards formulating policies specifically shielding animals from an ever-growing savage human society. Moreover, this being said, there has been an emerging trend whereby a changing social attitude towards the well-being of these majestic creatures is changing rapidly and there is a greater sense of responsibility within the attitude of humanity in perseverance and care which highlights a positive change. More so, this change can be identified through the change of trend in terms of the use of animals in more traditional practices in the spheres of agriculture, comradeship, research, recreation and also as coaching tools. Now at first, introducing the phenomenon of Euthanasia creating a ripple in the lives of animals is a process which under the guidelines established in this field can be defined as the process of what happens to an animal at time of death. In addition, this inhumane process is used repeatedly for the ruthless slaughter and for de congestion of animal population. Besides this, if we look for a legal approach of Euthanasia in animals then most of the times it chiefly is subject to the professional opinion of veterinarians. In recent times, there is also emergence of the concept of Pre-Euthanasia which principally involves scientific techniques of sedition and numerous other animal handling practices. Thus, through this article the academicians will aim at sketching a clear understanding of the various aspects of Euthanasia in the stance of animals and what are the prevalent laws and practices dealing in the regulation of this phenomenon.

Euthanasia & Veterinarian Medical Morals

The term Euthanasia comes from two Ancient Greek words: ‘Eu’ means ‘Good’, and ‘thantos’ means ‘death’, so Euthanasia means good death. It is an act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or in an incurable condition by injection or by suspending extra ordinary medical treatment in order to free him of intolerable pain or from terminal illness.Euthanasia is defined as an intentional killing by an act or omission of person whose life is felt is not to be worth living. It is also known as ‘Mercy Killing’ which is an act where the individual who, is in an irremediable condition or has no chances of survival as he is suffering from painful life, ends his life in a painless manner. It is a gentle, easy and painless death. It implies the procuring of an individual’s death, so as to avoid or end pain or suffering, especially of individuals suffering from incurable diseases. Oxford dictionary defines it as the painless killing of a person who has an incurable disease or who is in an irreversible coma. According to the House of Lords select Committee on Medical Ethics, it is “a deliberate intervention under taken with the express intention of ending life to relieve intractable suffering”.Thus it can be said that Euthanasia is the deliberated and intentional killing of a human being by a direct action, such as lethal injection, or by the failure to perform even the most basic medical care or by withdrawing life support system in order to release that human being from painful life. It is basically to bring about the death of a terminally ill patient or a disabled. It is resorted to so that the last days of a patient who has been suffering from such an illness which is terminal in nature or which has disabled him can peacefully end up his life and which can also prove to be less painful for him. Thus the basic intention behind euthanasia is to ensure a less painful death to a person who is in any case going to die after a long period of suffering. Euthanasia is practiced so that a person can live as well as die with dignity. In brief, it means putting a person to painless death in case of incurable diseases or when life become purpose less or hopeless as a result of mental or physical handicap.

Generally, veterinarians are well informed and educated in the entire process of public homily which in turn relate to the welfare of the animals in terms of their scientific and ethical relevance. Veterinarians generally specialize in the entire process of Euthanasia (end of life issues) in terms of guidance and superior professional knowledge in terms of yielding their specialized expertise in determining the allowance of this entire process for in terms of granting specific permission to undergo the procedure of Euthanasia Furthermore, based on the general guidelines veterinarians are the only professionals whose expert opinions matter in terms of any grant for the process of Euthanasia for any said animal and it is only their opinion that can push through this very complex process. Moreover, for veterinarian is it almost a compulsory process for that of providing their expert opinions for this said process as it would go against their ethical practices since it would violate the oaths they as veterinarians have taken to protect and persevere animals. There are certain conditions under which veterinarians may endow approval for Euthanasia amongst animals. At first, we look at the quality of life that is being led by the particular animal at the moment and the quality of life of an animal can be judged on grounds of its present caretaking level or in its level of impoverishment. Secondly, there is the scenario of the state of an animal in its anti-mortem period and its chances of making it through and its probability of life after the conclusion of such a period. Finally, we can throw light upon the factor of an animal mitigating through the process of Euthanasia i.e. any given animal would have its pain relieved by undergoing the process of Euthanasia, instead of its problems taking its natural course. Followingly, these aforementioned processes are taken up in light where Euthanasia of animals is taken up in situations population restriction and food processes. But we must always keep in mind for any of the said situation to occur, there is a need for the expert skills and grant of consent by any authorized and competent veterinarian. Thus, we also divergently see that the process of Euthanasia is also absolutely necessary in some situations where there must be attempt made for the control of diseases or animals being used for research purposes with the ulterior motive of scientific advancement. In conclusion, we see that the process of Euthanasia is a complex one but the certain factor in it is the unrelenting factor of the expertise and courage of veterinarian go recommend the commission of this dire need of a process that ultimately ends lives.

Assessing Approaches for Euthanasia:

Euthanasia as a process in terms of a general perception is far from perfect. It is ultimately a procedure that ends lives and thus brings about a shroud over the thinking of a rationale man regarding this entire phenomenon. Then again, we have already established through this article that it is a necessary evil sometimes though most of the times it lacks the desired execution and result. Furthermore, Euthanasia in animals can go through various different streams but not all of these procedures are acceptable. More so, sometimes it is acceptable, other times it is acceptable but on fulfillment of certain conditions and there are also situations where it is completely unacceptable. Then again, the deterrents in deciding the degree on the level of acceptance mostly depends on the factors of the safety of the procedure and also the need of the same. The safety of the procedure is mainly restricted to the skill of the practitioner who would be undertaking the entire process of Euthanasia. On the other hand, the need of this process is to be identified under the lines of why is being undertaken and thus in turn it would determine the requirement of the whole technique. In addition, the whole process of Euthanasia must be in accordance with the local municipal laws in place for the regulation of this practice. These laws differ from state to state and its nature and extent would accordingly vary based on its social and legal acceptance. Then again, the academicians in this article will later draw an Indian and Global perspective with regard to the existing laws on Euthanasia for animals. Therefore, to sum it up, we can conclude by saying that the approached for assessing Euthanasia would strictly depend factors that would include the conscience of a particular animal, it undergoing pain, its levels of stress, its recent behavior, probability of its death and the disposal of its remains. These are more or less the main factors responsible for assessment of grant of Euthanasia to an animal by the appropriate practitioner.

Methods of Euthanasia

There are different techniques that are taken up to deal with Euthanasia amongst animals and different techniques on how to administer them. The most common technique used is through the inhalation of gases or various other kinds of toxic vapors. The aerated contaminants work with the body of an animal and react with their blood thus giving in and uprising it with a clear indictor of “Passive Euthanasia”. Furthermore, these administrations are mainly done in gas chambers and even more domestic outlets such as in-home cages. These air contaminants cause specific levels of distress on reaction with specific animals which is in conformity with the different levels of distress an animal feels to a particular air component. Also, some of the main agents that deal in the administration of Euthanasia amongst animals are carbonmonoxide, nitrogen, argon and carbon-dioxide. Moreover, these are the principal agents in dealing with the contribution of the entire process of Euthanasia amongst animals. On the contrary, if we look at physical techniques that are taken up while conducting Euthanasia amongst animals then these methods are primarily consisting of the wide array of processes that range from parental injection, immersion and topical application. All these physical processes deal with injecting or absorption of various external bodies which slowly results in “Active Euthanasia” within animal of different spheres of the ecosystem. Thus, on comparison of both these processes of Active and Passive Euthanasia, we can observe that none of the procedure seems to be ideal and both seem to be spine chilling processes but yet are carried out on a daily basis across the globe both on legal and illegal lines, thereby raising a huge perspective on the entire human race.

Interface of Euthanasia for Animals in India

In a report by the World Association for Animal Health (OIE), animal welfare implies how a creature is adapting to the condition in which it lives. In addition, John Webster, an English philosopher, characterizes animal welfare by upholding three positive conditions i.e. living a distinctive life, being fit and upbeat. In the recent trends in print media we see a strong trend towards adoption of animal Euthanasia in terms giving them respite from various situations in our society where humanity takes a dip towards a state of inhumanity. Furthermore, in reasoning to the above contention, the academicians believe that each creature has the privilege to live. Moreover, it is a better option for these creatures in question to give them a fair chance of leading a life with dignity. It is pitiful that individuals are inconsiderate to the point that they let go of their pets, which prompts overcrowding at animal shelters. Willful extermination is not the answer for this issue. Other than open help structures, in excess of 2900 non-government associations are working in the field of Animal Welfare in India. A select number of these associations get open financing through establishment like the Animal Welfare Board of India. The aggregate arrangement spending plan of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for plans under Animal Welfare part amid monetary year 14-15 was significant. A survey of yearly spending plan of the service demonstrates that it has stay steady for most recent couple of years. With focus on open fund requirements, India is working towards gathering for twelfth Five-year design (2012-2017) influenced proposals for institutional instrument/to plan to pull in and beneficially use assets from elements including corporate bodies and humanitarians, among others. According to newspaper article dated 28th February’2014, Ministry of Corporate Affairs along with the Government of India in support of ‘Animal Welfare’, exercises can get support of corporates who now need to make compulsory ventures on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) according to arrangement of the Companies Act, 2013. The Horticulture Skill Council of India has additionally recognized the need and interest for prepared staff to work in the creature welfare division and accordingly has been connecting with private associations to attempt professional aptitude programs in animal welfare sector. Furthermore, degree and limitations of Indian NGOs in the field of Animal Welfare developing open and private interest for scope of creature welfare administrations, sharpening of individuals when all is said in done for sympathy to creatures, likely duration of open subsidizing backing to NGOs under AWBI, money related changes and imaginative choices for raising support including late positive arrangement changes to enlarge investment of private area in creature welfare exercises under corporate social obligation structure and so forth shows monstrous extension for NGOs to embrace exercises in the field of Animal welfare. Collaborations with scratch witnesses demonstrates that the non-government creature welfare associations that are working at the state level are confronting issues like: inadequate gifted labor, poor veterinary medicinal services, poor venture administration and gathering pledges limitations. Then again, to be specific in terms of actual animal welfare interest in northeast India, survey of progressing ventures demonstrates that the NGOs inside the locale have just irrelevant measure of money related give discharged by AWBI under different plans amid the year 2014-15. The speculation (Private and Public) on animal welfare inside the district is generally low. The individuals from the board proposed for centered exertion towards sharpening of North-Eastern States on need of animal welfare exercises. Thus, we see that Euthanasia for animals within the national boundaries of India presents a very limited scope, wherein there is a strong presence of NGO’s and other private and very limited governmental organizations that in tandem work towards animal rights and justice for these voiceless creatures. With India lacking any real legislations in terms for creating a legal scope for the process of Euthanasia, this lack of a proper legal structure further fuels the debate on allowance of such a critical and inhumane arrangement of death.

Laws Governing Euthanasia: Local Perspective

In terms of a local outlook, the first major breakthrough in terms introduction of Euthanasia as a concept was initiated when on 25th February 2014, a five-judge seat constituted to provide another arrangement of rules on willful extermination passed a law. Followingly, this court order was followed up on a request of recorded by a NGO named Common Cause, which contended for the privilege to challenge the existing legal deterrents on Euthanasia with nobility. It was expressed that the method set in this decision did not follow Article 21 of the Constitution, as the privilege to life ensured by the Article did exclude the privilege to pass on with nobility under the well-known tradition that must be adhered to. In spite of this, the Supreme Court of India authorized latent willful extermination in specific situations (as set out a method for its working, as is said hereinabove). Euthanasia as a method in the Indian legal system would be carried out in which an animal is allowed to pass on by a think withdrawal of life maintaining treatment, keeping in mind the end goal to instigate demise. Fundamentally, the act of inactive killing is directed by methods for a persistent disregard to maintain life. This enables the hand of nature to follow through to its logical end and enable the body to accomplish a last stop, as it is essential in that particular time. Further boosting the claim of Euthanasia and its presence at the federal level, the Constitution of India Provides Animal Protection by Article 51 guaranteeing sympathy to every single living creature. India has made legitimate arrangement to help animal welfare including control and supervision of experimentation on different species. We see that, the general society are involved in animal welfare exercises at national levels and they are administered under the animal welfare division of Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change. Furthermore, the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) is a pinnacle national organization in such manner. As of late, Government of India has likewise perceived the need to confer instruction in the field of Animal welfare science in an expert way with an organized system. The National Institute of Animal Welfare (NIAW) in Ballabhgarh, Haryana was set up amid the year 2006 to address this issue. Also, at the state level, government is statutorily required to set up and finance Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) in each area according to Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Establishment and Regulation of Societies for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) Rules, 2001. These tenets were informed as required by sub-area (1) of segment 38 of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 (59 of 1960). SPCAs are required to help the state government, Animal Welfare Board of India and nearby experts in implementing arrangement of the above demonstration. The SPCAs can seize creatures; gather fines and handover wrongdoer of brutality to creatures to police. Thus we see that there is ray of hope in terms of the legislation that are available for the protection of animals and further increase in their scope of undertaking the process of Euthanasia, in these specific provisions that permits a dignified death to the needy animals who have been continuously ignored by the society and thus leading them to be in state of complete physical discomfort and therefore Euthanasia being the only solution for their unwanted suffering. The basic rights of life in respect to animals is critical for a grant of the process of Euthanasia. Also, for guaranteeing an empathetic and conscious result for such voiceless creatures, for fortifying the human–animal bond, and for keeping up the notoriety of the calling the procedure of Euthanasia seems absolutely irreplaceable. Furthermore, understanding the idea of the bond between the animals and their guardians assumes the most imperative part in deciding the result for every animal proprietor. In a perfect world, animal Euthanasia incorporates a mutual and merciful energy about the circumstance, the alternatives, and the conceivable results of the decisions that are to be made. The idea reinforcing the human–animal bond has extraordinarily entangled the moral problem encompassing killing. Moreover. willful extermination is a passionate, mental, and financial issue that each society must adapt with on a regular basis. Also, through this article we can emphasize on various moral basic leadership devices and deliberative systems that can enable them to better oversee end-of-life procedures along delivery of more ideal results. In the future we can see that the concept of Euthanasia really picking up a greater prominence in terms of wider knowledge and acceptability from the society as it is important to understand that not only is it a process of necessary termination of animals but also as the only process that would stand out in indirectly protecting the entire species of animals. In this regard we must also observe that there is a very fine line of difference with which we can distinguish the cases of general euthanasia from the ones in specific relation for forced or unwarranted Euthanasia of animals. It is to draw a line in accordance with this differentiation that it is of the utmost importance that there is a legal framework in place, both in terms of the international and municipal laws of the global society.

The Central Government notified the draft Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Animal Husbandry Practices and Procedures) Rules, 2020, which proposes to mandate using painkillers prior to castration, replacing archaic and painful practices such as hot branding with radio frequency identification, breeding hornless cattle instead of dehorning or disbudding, and applying behavioural principles of animal handling and restraint – such as the use of face halters, blindfolds, treats (like molasses, groundnut cake, or green grass), and verbal and physical cues like calmly talking to and gently stroking animals instead of roughly throwing them to the ground and tying their legs with ropes. The rules also require that euthanasia be carried out only under the supervision of a registered veterinary practitioner, as per the procedure set forth by the World Organisation for Animal Health and the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals.

The decision of the government to define the “prescribed manner” for painful animal husbandry procedures for cattle under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960, follows advisories issued by the Animal Welfare Board of India and the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, appeals made by PETA India, and public interest litigation that we filed in the High Court of Delhi.

Euthanasia may be defined as ‘painless killing to relieve suffering’. Veterinary surgeons and veterinary nurses should be aware that these events are often highly emotionally charged. In these circumstances, small actions and/or omissions can take on a disproportionate level of importance. It is recommended that all practice staff involved in euthanasia are fully trained and a planned, rehearsed and coordinated approach is taken.

Euthanasia is not, in law, an act of veterinary surgery, and in most circumstances may be carried out by anyone provided that it is carried out humanely. No veterinary surgeon is obliged to kill a healthy animal unless required to do so under statutory powers as part of their conditions of employment. Veterinary surgeons do, however, have the privilege of being able to relieve an animal’s suffering in this way in appropriate cases.

Purpose of euthanasia

The primary purpose of euthanasia is to relieve suffering. The decision to follow this option will be based on an assessment of many factors. These may include the extent and nature of the disease or injuries, other treatment options, the prognosis and potential quality of life after treatment, the availability and likelihood of success of treatment, the animal’s age and/or other disease/health status and the ability of the owner to pay for private treatment.

Difficulties with the decision

Veterinary surgeons may face difficulties where a request is made by a client for the destruction of an animal, where in the clinical/professional judgement of the veterinary surgeon destruction of the animal is not necessary, for instance where there are no health or welfare reasons for the animal to be euthanised, or when an owner wishes to keep an animal alive in circumstances where euthanasia would be the kindest course of action.

The veterinary surgeon’s primary obligation is to relieve the suffering of an animal, but account must be taken not only of the animal’s condition, but also the owner’s wishes and circumstances. To refuse an owner’s request for euthanasia may add to the owner’s distress and could be deleterious to the welfare of the animal. In these circumstances before carrying out the request for euthanasia the veterinary surgeon should scan the animal for a microchip and check the relevant database if a microchip is found.

Where, in all conscience, a veterinary surgeon cannot accede to a client’s request for euthanasia, they should recognise the extreme sensitivity of the situation and make sympathetic efforts to direct the client to alternative sources of advice.

There may be circumstances where a request is made by a client for the destruction of a dog, as above where in the clinical/professional judgement of the veterinary surgeon destruction of the dog is not necessary, for instance where there are no health or welfare reasons for the dog to be euthanised. In these circumstances, veterinary surgeons should scan the dog for a microchip and check the relevant database if a microchip is found before carrying out the request for euthanasia. Further, veterinary surgeons should note that where the dog in question has been rehomed from a shelter, clients may have a contract such that the dog can be returned to that shelter and so it may be appropriate to discuss this with the client prior to euthanasia. Alternatively, there may be another individual willing to take responsibility for the dog (who may be named on the microchip database), and this may also be discussed with the client.

Where the reason for a request for euthanasia is the inability of the client to pay for private treatment, it may be appropriate to make known the options and eligibility for charitable assistance or referral for charitable treatment.

Where a veterinary surgeon is concerned about an owner’s refusal to consent to euthanasia, veterinary surgeons can only advise their clients and act in accordance with their professional judgement. Where a veterinary surgeon is concerned that an animal’s welfare is compromised because of an owner’s refusal to allow euthanasia, a veterinary surgeon may take steps to resolve the situation, for example, an initial step could be to seek another veterinary opinion for the client, potentially by telephone.

The word euthanasia means an easy death and should be regarded as an act of humane killing with the minimum of pain, fear and distress.Euthanasia of a range of animal species is often necessary during pest animal control programs and occasionally in research involving the capture or restraint of pest animals. Therefore, all researchers and personnel involved with pest animal control must be familiar with the approved euthanasia methods for the range of species encountered (both target and non-target) and have appropriate equipment or possibly drugs on hand so that euthanasia can be performed effectively and quickly.

Many recommended methods of euthanasia for captive animals are not feasible under field conditions; however the challenges presented by field conditions should not lessen the ethical obligation of the operator to reduce pain and distress to the greatest extent possible during euthanasia.

This standard operating procedure (SOP) is a guide only; it does not replace or override the legislation that applies in the relevant state or territory jurisdiction. The SOP should only be used subject to the applicable legal requirements (including OH&S) operating in the relevant jurisdiction.

Application

This document is a summary of the current best practices for providing a humane death for a range of species that may be encountered when working with pet animals. Euthanasia of animals may be required for a number of reasons including:
- Emergency euthanasia of animals with untreatable injuries incurred during capture, handling or transit
- Cases of untreatable disease where an animal is suffering
- Collection of voucher specimens
- Requirement of a research procedure, eg when fresh tissues are required for analysis
- Destruction of live-captured declared pest animals (where release is prohibited).
The document is not aimed at the shooting of ‘free-ranging’ pest animals or wildlife. It is also not designed to provide specific guidance on the killing of pest animals as part of control programs. Species-specific procedures for the humane control of pest animals are available for this purpose.
Factors to consider when choosing an appropriate method of euthanasia are species, size, safety, location of the animal and expertise and preference of the operator. The most appropriate method for species and age and size of animal should always be used.
Euthanasia procedures must be performed by persons competent in and qualified for the methods to be used, or under the direct supervision of a competent person. Some methods require considerable training and experience to be used appropriately.
Training should include:
- familiarity with the normal behaviour of the species being euthanased
- an appreciation of how handling and restraint affect behaviour
- an understanding of the mechanisms by which the selected technique induces loss of consciousness and death
- recognition of signs of pain and distress.
Schedule 4 drugs (eg barbiturates, anaesthetics and tranquillisers) can only be administered by a veterinarian as an act of veterinary science (or an authorised person under their direction) or, under certain circumstances, by an investigator (or an authorised person under their direction) under a valid research authority. As there is some variation in the statutory requirements of each state for the supply, possession, use and storage of these drugs, operators must consult the relevant legislation before use.

Animal welfare considerations

Impact on target animals

When it is necessary to kill an animal, humane procedures must always be used. These procedures must avoid distress, be reliable, and produce rapid loss of consciousness without pain until death occurs.
Many methods of euthanasia require that animals be physically restrained. Proper handling and restraint is essential to minimise pain, fear, distress and anxiety experienced by the animal and also for the safety of the operator.
Where capture or restraint may cause significant pain, injury or anxiety to the animal or pose a danger to the operator, the prior use of sedative and/or immobilising drugs may be necessary.
It is important to recognise that some physical methods of euthanasia (eg stunning followed by exsanguination) which cannot be made aesthetically pleasant may, nonetheless, be humane in that it ensures immediate insensitivity to pain. The choice of technique should be made based on the sensibilities of the animal to be killed rather than the sensitivities of the observer or operator.
If possible, any dependent young of animals being euthanased should also be killed or provision made for their care.

Health and safety considerations

Animal handling and restraint

Many animal species are capable of inflicting serious injury to persons handling them. Appropriate handling and restraint techniques should be used, and training in their application should be provided to avoid injury to both animals and humans.
Protective clothing, footwear and gloves may reduce the chances of injury when handling wild animals.
When working in the field, personnel should work in teams of at least two people especially when involved in the physical or chemical restraint and handling of animals.
After stunning larger animals (eg deer, horses), always approach the animal from the dorsal (or spinal) side to prevent injury from the involuntary paddling of legs.
Some animal carcasses can be heavy (eg feral pigs can be >100 kg), so care must be taken when lifting/dragging.

Firearm safety

Firearms are potentially hazardous. All people should stand well behind the shooter when an animal is being shot. The line of fire must be chosen to prevent accidents or injury from stray bullets or ricochets.
Firearm users must strictly observe all relevant safety guidelines relating to firearm ownership, possession and use.
When not in use, firearms must be securely stored in a compartment that meets state legal requirements. Ammunition must be stored in a locked container separate from firearms.
Adequate hearing protection should be worn by the shooter and others in the immediate vicinity of the shooter. Repeated exposure to firearm noise can cause irreversible hearing damage.
Safety glasses are recommended to protect the eyes from gases, metal fragments and other particles.

Zoonotic hazards

Care must be taken when handling live animals and carcasses as they may carry diseases that can affect humans and other animals eg hydatidosis, dermatophytosis, sarcoptic mange, leptospirosis, Q fever, brucellosis, sparganosis, melioidosis, tuberculosis etc. Routinely wash hands after handling all animals and carcasses.
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABL) and rabies vaccination is recommended for people who come into regular contact with bats (both flying foxes and microbats). Operators should avoid bites and scratches and use protective equipment when handling all bats. All wounds inflicted by bats or flying foxes should be washed thoroughly with soap and water as soon as possible. Operators should always seek medical advice regarding post-exposure treatment whenever a bite, scratch or mucous membrane exposure to saliva from any Australian bat has occurred. Where the bat is available it should tested for the presence of ABL.
Q fever can be transmitted to humans during contact with infected animals, or with infected uterine or placental tissue. A variety of animals may be infected including kangaroos, wallabies, dogs, cats, cattle, sheep and goats. Vaccination is recommended for people who come into regular contact with potentially infected animals. Skin or blood testing of personnel is recommended to assess previous exposure, followed by vaccination for susceptible individuals

Chemical hazards

Use of anaesthetic gases

There is evidence that chronic exposure to inhalation of anaesthetic agents may be associated with psychomotor, hepatic and renal dysfunction.
They should only be used in well-ventilated areas.

Use of carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide is extremely hazardous to humans as it is highly toxic and difficult to detect. Exposure from inhalation of carbon monoxide fumes can cause fatal poisoning. Non-fatal poisoning may result in permanent nervous system damage.
If carbon monoxide fumes are inhaled, remove patient from contaminated area. Lay patient down and keep warm and rested.
Early signs of toxicosis are headache, dizziness and weakness. If patient is not breathing, apply artificial respiration and perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if necessary. Transport patient to a hospital or doctor without delay.

Use of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide should be used in a well ventilated place.
Carbon dioxide is non-flammable, non-explosive and poses minimal risk to personnel when used with properly designed equipment. However, inhalation of significant concentrations of CO2 can cause narcosis and/or asphyxia.
If CO2 is inhaled, remove patient from the contaminated area to allow them to breathe fresh air. Early signs of exposure are headache and shortness of breath.
If patient is not breathing, make sure airway is clear and apply artificial resuscitation. Keep warm. Oxygen may be given but only under the supervision of a trained person.
Although prolonged exposure to low levels of CO2 (up to 1.5 % in inhaled air) are well tolerated, chronic health effects can result.

Methods of euthanasia

While no ideal method of euthanasia exists, the procedure of choice should approach as closely as possible the following criteria:
- Is painless
- Produces rapid loss of consciousness and death
- Interrupts consciousness and reflexes simultaneously
- Requires minimum restraint
- Avoids excitement and causes minimal psychological stress to the animals
- Is appropriate for the age of the animal
- Exhibits consistent and predictable action
- Is easily and safely administered by properly trained personnel
- Causes minimal emotional effects to operator and observers
- Is not subject to abuse by humans
- Is not a disease or environmental problem
- Does not result in tissue changes that would affect a post-mortem diagnosis
- Is economical and readily available
- Does not leave carcasses that, if consumed, will result in secondary poisoning.
Methods of euthanasia fall into two broad categories – chemical and physical. These methods may cause death by three basic mechanisms:
- Hypoxia, direct or indirect
- Direct depression of neurons vital for life functions
- Physical destruction of brain activity and destruction of neurons vital for life.
Below is a brief description of some of the recommended methods of euthanasia.

Physical methods

Shooting

Shooting is a quick and effective means of humanely destroying animals and in most situations is the only practical method available for use in the field.
Head shots are preferred when euthanasing animals that are immobilised by injury or physical restraint. Correctly placed head shots cause brain function to cease and result in an instantaneous loss of consciousness.
Shots must be aimed so that the projectile enters the brain, causing instant loss of consciousness. This must take into account differences in brain position and skull conformation between species as well as the energy requirement for skull bone and sinus penetration. Accurate targeting for a shot to the head in various species has been described below.
In some situations chest shots may be required where an accurate head shot cannot be achieved (eg injured free-ranging animals or animals that cannot be restrained) or where a shot to the brain may prevent collection of samples for research or disease diagnosis. Death from a shot to the chest is due to massive tissue damage and haemorrhage from major blood vessels.
Insensibility will occur after an interval ranging from a few seconds to a minute or more. If a shot stops the heart functioning, the animal will lose consciousness rapidly.
Shooting should only be performed by skilled operators who have the necessary experience with firearms and who hold the appropriate licences and accreditation.
Storage and transportation of firearms and ammunition must comply with relevant legislative requirements.
There may be legal restrictions on discharging a firearm in certain areas. Police permission may be necessary.
The accuracy and precision of firearms should be tested against inanimate targets prior to the commencement of any shooting operation.
Non-essential personnel should keep away from the area to allow the animal to become less agitated. The shooter should approach the animal in a calm and quiet manner.
To maximise the impact of the shot and to minimise the risk of misdirection the range should be as short as possible, eg 5—20 cm from the head if using a rifle, 1—2 m if using a shotgun. The barrel should never be touching the animal’s head.
Never fire when the animal is moving its head; be patient and wait until the animal is motionless before shooting. Accuracy is important to achieve a humane death. One shot should ensure instantaneous loss of consciousness and rapid death without resumption of consciousness.

Rifles

Firearms no smaller than a .17 calibre rimfire are adequate for euthanasia of most species of animals at short range (< 5 m), as long as the shot is correctly positioned. Soft-nose or hollow point ammunition which expands on impact should be used.
Shotguns
12 gauge shotguns with shot sizes of BB or AAA may also be used.

Handguns

Handguns are class H firearms and their use is tightly controlled in all jurisdictions.
Rifles are preferred to handguns because the longer barrel length ensures better control by the shooter and places the shooter further away from the animal.
Where handguns have to be used for euthanasia, the shooter must be especially careful as the shorter sight radius and barrel length greatly increases the risk of accidental injury to bystanders.

Penetrating Captive-Bolt Pistols

A penetrating captive-bolt pistol uses a blank cartridge to fire a bolt into the brain of the animal. This causes concussion and trauma to the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem which renders the animal instantaneously unconscious. A correctly stunned animal will collapse immediately often with muscular contractions and involuntary kicking.
A penetrating captive bolt can cause varying degrees of brain injury depending on the placement and length of the bolt and the force with which it is projected into the brain. In some cases the animal may not die quickly, therefore, it is recommended that immediately after the procedure, death of the animal is ensured by a second procedure such as exsanguination or pithing.
Is an acceptable method of euthanasia in larger animals ie horses, pigs and ruminants (sheep, cattle, goats etc).
Suitable restraint of the animal and exact placement of the bolt is essential. Captive-bolt pistols must be firmly held against the head when firing.
The manufacturers recommendations should be followed on the most appropriate blank cartridges for each species.
Captive-bolt pistols are not regarded as firearms, however, operators must be properly trained in their use.

Stunning by a blow to the head

Stunning the animal by a blow to the head may be acceptable in small or young animals with a soft skull (eg neonatal pigs <3 weeks old, rats, mice, kittens, newborn pups, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish).
A single, sharp blow should be delivered to the central skull bones. This can be achieved with a hard and heavy, blunt instrument (e.g. metal pipe, wooden club etc.). Alternatively, small animals can be held by the hind quarters and swung in an arc so that the back of the head is struck on the edge of a hard object.
Stunning usually only renders an animal unconscious; therefore it must be immediately followed by a second method that ensures death (e.g. exsanguination, cervical dislocation, pithing).
When properly performed with sufficient force, immediate depression of the central nervous system and destruction of brain tissue occurs. Loss of consciousness is rapid.
It must be properly applied to be effective and humane therefore, training and skill of operator is essential. If not performed correctly, various degrees of consciousness with accompanying pain can occur.

Cervical dislocation

Acceptable for small animals which are easily handled eg small to medium sized birds, rodents and, rabbits (weighing <1 kg).
The operator must be confident of performing this technique quickly and effectively. It requires mastering of technical skills to ensure that loss of consciousness is rapidly induced.
This method involves separation of the skull and the brain from the spinal cord by pressure applied posterior to the base of the skull. The brain stem – which controls respiration and heart activity – is consequently damaged, stopping breathing and reducing blood flow to the brain, leading to death. Studies in rats have shown that electrical activity in the brain persists for around 13 seconds following cervical dislocation. This may represent a period of remaining consciousness.
Violent muscular contraction can occur after cervical dislocation.

Decapitation

Decapitation involves the rapid severing of the head from the body using a guillotine or sharp blade.
Loss of consciousness is thought to develop rapidly in warm-blooded animals.
Violent muscular contraction can occur after decapitation.
This method is acceptable method for very small mammals (eg very, small unfurred kangaroo pouch young) providing that appropriate and well-maintained equipment is used.
In cold-blooded vertebrates, the animals must be stunned or rendered insensible prior to decapitation as they are very tolerant of anoxia.
This method is not acceptable for birds as they may be conscious for up to 30 seconds after decapitation.

Exsanguination

Exsanguination or ‘bleeding out’ of the carcass is achieved by cutting the major blood vessels in the neck (ie the carotid arteries and jugular veins).
Exsanguination must not be used as a sole method of euthanasia as extreme hypovolaemia is associated with anxiety. Pain is also associated with cutting the deeper blood vessels.
This method is not acceptable for birds because of the tendency for the blood to clot relatively quickly and thus result in incomplete bleeding-out. It is also not acceptable for reptiles and other cold-blooded vertebrates because of their slow metabolic rate and tolerance to hypoxia.
Should only be used on unconscious animals i.e. those that have been stunned or anaesthetised.
Often used in the field after prior stunning to ensure death.

Pithing

Pithing is sometimes used as an adjunctive procedure to ensure death in an animal that has been rendered unconscious by other means (e.g. stunning).
It is often more acceptable than exsanguination as little blood is spilled.
It is carried out by inserting a sharp needle or probe through the foramen magnum into the base of the brain to ensure brain destruction. Pithing can also be performed by inserting a probe through the hole made by a captive bolt.
This method is used for some fish, amphibians and reptiles.

Chemical methods

Inhalant agents

Euthanasia with inhaled gases is slow due to the requirement for any gas being inhaled to reach the required concentration in the tissues before taking effect. A closed chamber for holding the gas is needed and personnel safety must be considered in order to avoid exposure to the toxic gas.
Euthanasia by inhalation of toxic gases is not suitable for animals that hold their breath (eg diving or burrowing birds and mammals) or breathe at low frequency (eg amphibians and reptiles).
Inhalant methods are also not ideal for neonatal animals as they are relatively resistant to hypoxia. Neonates have physiological mechanisms to protect the animal from cerebral damage when oxygen is limited in the uterus and during birth. The tolerance to hypoxia gradually decreases with increasing age. Thus, inhalant agents that cause hypoxia, for example, carbon dioxide, may take longer to cause unconsciousness and death in neonatal animals compared with adult animals. Therefore, it is recommended that inhalant agents not be used as a sole method of euthanasia in neonatal animals less than 16 weeks old.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide used in a sealed environment is suitable for animals up to 3 kg and is mostly used for small birds and rodents.
There is less risk to the operator when using CO2 compared to anaesthetic gases or carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide is available in cylinders as a compressed gas (food, medical or industrial grade). The gas can be piped via a pressure reducing valve into either a plastic bag that encloses a cage or into a deep container with lid.
Another source of CO2 is dry ice (solidified CO2). Chips of dry ice are placed into a beaker of water inside the container where the animals are to be killed. The beaker needs to be covered so that the animals do not come into contact with the dry ice. 1kg of dry ice will produce approximately 0.5m3 of CO2 gas.
When animals are placed into a chamber containing up to 70% CO2 they lose consciousness very quickly due to the narcotic effect of the high intake of CO2 on the brain without causing hypoxia. Death is caused by direct depression of CNS, respiratory and cardiac functions. One hundred percent CO2 can cause severe dyspnoea (difficulty in breathing) and distress in conscious animals but this higher concentration is recommended for immature and neonatal animals as they are more tolerant of hypoxia and hypercarbia.
Compressed CO2 gas in cylinders should be used so the inflow to the chamber can be regulated precisely.
Animals can either be: (1) removed from the trap and placed into a container pre-filled with CO2, or (2) remain in holding cages, which are then enclosed within an impervious container or plastic sack.
A continuous inflow of CO2 should then be allowed to flow into the sack. A constant level of CO2 should be maintained for at least 3 minutes and anaesthesia will occur within 60 seconds.
With animals inside the chamber, an optimal flow rate should displace at least 20% of the chamber volume per minute.
Carbon dioxide is heavier than air so incomplete filling of a chamber may permit some animals to climb, fly up or raise their heads above the higher concentrations to avoid exposure to the gas.
Care must be taken to limit the number of animals in a chamber at any one time so as to maintain a constant CO2 concentration.
Each animal must be verified as dead before removing it from the chamber. If uncertain whether the animal is dead CO2 narcosis must be followed by another euthanasia method eg cervical dislocation.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

When inhaled, carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin in the red blood cells, with an affinity 250 times that of oxygen. This results in reduced oxygen-carrying capacity and altered delivery of oxygen to cells. Hypoxia – the reduction of oxygen supply to the tissues – eventually leads to unconsciousness and death.
Death occurs rapidly at CO concentrations of 4 to 6%. Carbon monoxide concentrations greater than 2% are sufficient to cause loss of consciousness within minutes. Failure of the respiratory centre then occurs followed by death from cardiac arrest.
Carbon monoxide is extremely hazardous to humans as it is highly toxic and difficult to detect. Exposure from inhalation of combustion products can cause fatal poisoning. Non-fatal poisoning may result in permanent nervous system damage.
Source of carbon monoxide is compressed CO in cylinders. Is also available as combustible cartridges, but these are only registered for use in natal fox dens. Euthanasia of trapped pest birds is sometimes carried out with cooled and scrubbed exhaust from non-vehicular petrol engines without a catalytic converter.
Carbon monoxide sourced from the cooled exhaust of vehicular petrol engines with a catalytic converter (ie from cars less than approximately 10 years old) is not acceptable on the basis of all current information. For example, research has shown that the levels of carbon monoxide drop off very quickly after the engine has started, leaving only a small window where concentration is adequate for a rapid death (i.e. for up to approx 60 seconds after a car has been cold started). It is also likely that the level of potential irritants (eg carbon), are highest during this short time.

Anaesthetic gases

Halothane and the halogenated ethers, for example, isoflurane, methoxyflurane can be used with small animals (< 7kg).
The animal can be placed in a sealed chamber containing cotton or gauze soaked with an appropriate amount of an anaesthetic or the anaesthetic vapour can be introduced from a vaporiser into the container or a plastic bag that has been placed around a cage containing the animal. The animal will become unconscious quickly and quietly (some voluntary, then involuntary resistance behaviour usually occurs).

Using soaked gauze

Anaesthetic vapour from the soaked cotton or gauze can reach toxic concentrations within the chamber leading to death. However, lethal concentrations cannot be guaranteed so the animal should be removed from the cage once unconscious and euthanased with a secondary method of euthanasia for example, an intravenous or intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbitone sodium. Note that if intraperitoneal pentobarbitone is used, the animal must be returned to the gas-filled chamber until it has died.

Using a vaporiser

When vapour is introduced using a vaporiser, lethal concentrations are unlikely to be achieved and the animal must be removed from the cage once unconscious and euthanased using a secondary method of euthanasia for example, an intravenous or intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbitone sodium. Note that if intraperitoneal pentobarbitone is used, the animal must be returned to the gas-filled chamber until it has died.
When using a vaporiser, the addition of an appropriate concentration of nitrous oxide will produce a more rapid loss of consciousness
This method is less hazardous to the operator as the gases can be vented or scavenged thus lowering exposure.
These methods are not used in large animals because of high cost and difficulty in administration.
The use of chloroform is not acceptable due to OH&S risks (due to hepatotoxity, renotoxicity and suspect carcinogenicity)
The use of ether is not acceptable for both OH&S and animal welfare reasons (high explosive risk, the induction of anaesthesia is slow, causes irritation to the skin and mucous membranes, causes marked excitement in some species).
Anaesthetic gases are restricted substances, listed as Schedule 4 under the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons (SUSDP). This listing requires that they be restricted to medical, dental or veterinary prescription or supply, or to approved use in research. Refer to the relevant state and territory legislation for specific details on the supply, possession, use and storage of these drugs.

Injectable agents

Barbiturates

One of the most humane methods of euthanasia is the administration of a barbiturate overdose either by the intravenous, intraperitoneal or intracardiac routes.
Injections by the intraperitoneal route work much more slowly than the intravenous route, but are easier for an operator working alone. The intraperitoneal route is used when an intravenous injection would result in stressful handling or be dangerous to the animal or the operator and when there are no easily accessible veins.
When using the intraperitoneal route, a non-irritant barbiturate solution should be used ie a normal anaesthetic solution of barbiturate, eg sodium pentobarbitone (Nembutal®). The more concentrated commercially prepared ‘euthanasia solutions’ (e.g. Euthatal® or Lethabarb®) are very alkaline and are thought to cause irritation of the peritoneum and pain prior to unconsciousness. Large volumes would have to be used in anything other than a very small animal as these solutions are approximately five times more concentrated than the same barbiturates designed for anaesthesia.
Because of the difficulty and unpredictability in performing the injection accurately, intracardiac injection should only be used if the animal is heavily sedated, unconscious or anaesthetised. In some situations, if the operator is skilled and experienced in the technique, intracardiac injection may be used on neonates or small animals without causing distress.
Animals need to be well restrained. If animals cannot be handled they may need to be immobilised in a restraint cage or sack or sedative drugs/anaesthetic gases administered prior to injection of barbiturate.
Barbiturates are restricted substances, listed as Schedule 4 under the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons (SUSDP). This listing requires that they be restricted to medical, dental or veterinary prescription or supply, or to approved use in research. Refer to the relevant state and territory legislation for specific details on the supply, possession, use and storage of these drugs.

Sedative drugs

A review of sedative, tranquillising or anaesthetic drugs (eg ketamine) for wildlife is beyond the scope of this document. Extensive information on these substances, methods of application and their use in the field is available throughout the scientific literature. Recommendations on appropriate drugs (including combinations thereof), dose rates and methods of application can vary dramatically between species. Users of sedative drugs should refer to the most recent, species specific literature and manufacturer recommendations before proceeding to field application.
Most of these drugs are restricted substances, listed as Schedule 4 or Schedule 8 under the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons (SUSDP). This listing requires that they be restricted to medical, dental or veterinary prescription or supply, or to approved use in research. In addition, Schedule 8 drugs are subject to stringent storage and record-keeping requirements. Refer to the relevant state and territory legislation for specific details on the supply, possession, use and storage of these drugs.

Disposal of carcasses

The carcasses of animals euthanased by barbiturate overdose or other chemical agents may contain potentially harmful residues. They should be disposed in a manner that will prevent them from being consumed by humans or predatory/scavenger animal species. Toxicosis, sedation and death have occurred in pets and wildlife that ingest portions of carcasses euthanased by some chemical agents.
Carbon dioxide is the only chemical used for euthanasia that does not result in tissue residues.

Signs of death

After the application of a euthanasia procedure, it is essential that the death of the animal be confirmed. Signs that should be used to indicate death are listed below.
Absence of respiratory movement: this sign alone is not sufficient as the heart may continue to beat for some time.
Absence of heart beat: determined by using a stethoscope or by palpation of the chest.
Absence of pulse: The femoral pulse can be palpated in the proximal medial aspect of the hind limb in the live animal, and is lost after death. This technique is of most use in larger species, as it can be impossible to discern in small species.
Loss of colour in mucous membranes: mucous membranes become pale and mottled, there is no refill after pressure is applied and they become dry and sticky. More useful in larger species where the mucous membranes in the mouth are easily accessible.
Corneal and palpebral reflexes are lost: the corneal reflex is elicited when the eyeball is touched and the palpebral reflex is elicited when the eyelids are stroked. The eye should remain open and the lid should not move.
Glazing of eyes: this will occur rapidly after death. The cornea loses its clear moist appearance and becomes opaque, dry and somewhat wrinkled.
Always check for these signs and do not assume an animal is dead just because it is not moving or apparently not breathing. If death cannot be confirmed, the operator should repeat the same or an alternative procedure.
If the animal is unconscious, the major blood vessels in the neck can be cut with a sharp knife so that the animal dies of blood loss (ie exsanguination).

Disposal of carcasses

Carcasses should only be discarded once death has been established.
Carcasses should be disposed of properly and in accordance with acceptable practices as required by local councils and applicable State or Commonwealth regulations.
If the carcass presents a risk to wildlife (e.g. it contains infectious disease agents or residues of euthanasia chemicals) it should be disposed of by incineration or by burying in a deep hole after covering with lime.
If large numbers of animals are to be killed, provisions should be made to dispose of carcasses in an appropriate manner.

Recommended Methods of Euthanasia for a Range of Species

It is recognised that exceptions to the recommended practice may be required under certain conditions. In those circumstances considerations of common sense for both animal and human welfare should prevail.

Amphibians (including cane toads)

Stunning followed by decapitation

Stunning is done by restraining the animal and applying a forceful blow to the middle of the head just behind the eyes.
Immediately after stunning, the animal must be decapitated using a knife.
In cane toads, stunning methods may cause the release of poison from the parotid skin glands. Precautions against operator contamination are necessary.

Gassing with carbon dioxide for >4 hours

This method has been used for the euthanasia of large numbers of cane toads.
Toads must be confirmed as dead prior to disposal.

Trans-dermal (skin) absorption of chloral hydrate, tricaine methane sulphonate (MS-222) or benzocaine

Solution is absorbed through the skin.
These methods are considered to be quick, non-irritant and humane methods of killing amphibians.

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous or intraperitoneal route.

Refer to CAN001 Standard Operating Procedure for the Euthanasia of Cane Toads.

Bats and flying foxes

Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2

Overdose of barbiturate

Intraperitoneal route.
May need prior sedation (eg intramuscular ketamine)

Birds (large size) eg emu, ibis

Shooting

A shot to the brain, using a 12 gauge shotgun, is preferred when the bird is in close range (<20 m). If the bird is >20m from the shooter, a chest shot using a large calibre centrefire rifle (eg .243) should be used.

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous or intraperitoneal route

Birds (small to medium size) eg starlings, mynas, cockatoos, galahs

Neck (cervical) dislocation

Dislocate the neck by taking the birds legs in the left hand (if right handed) and the head between the first two fingers of the right hand with the thumb under the beak. A sharp jerk with each hand, pulling the head backward over the neck aims to herniate the brain stem and may break the spinal cord and carotid arteries.
Cervical dislocation is not suitable for birds larger than 3 kg as it is difficult to pull the neck quickly. Average weights for some species are starlings (50—80 g), sulphur crested cockatoos (1 kg), corellas (565 g), galahs (330 g), ibis (2.5 kg), ducks (1—2 kg).

Overdose of barbiturate

Intraperitoneal route

Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2

Carbon dioxide suitable for adult birds
Anaesthetic gases suitable for chicks, and small/medium adult birds

Shooting (with shotgun)

Shot to the brain

Cats

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm is aimed at the centre of the head slightly below a line drawn midway between the ears.
- Behind the ear (side view): Shoot from the side aiming behind the ear so that the shot will pass through the brain towards the opposite eye.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation.
Intravenous route preferred, intraperitoneal route if necessary.
Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2
Suitable for feral cats in cage traps that are difficult to sedate with an injection.
Anaesthetic gas or carbon dioxide is introduced into a plastic bag that has been placed around the cage. The animal will become unconscious quickly and quietly, followed by death after a period depending on the gas used and its concentration. If preferred, once the animal is unconscious, it may be removed from the cage and euthanased with an intravenous or intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbitone sodium.

Cattle/Buffalo

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): Aim at the point of intersection of lines taken from the base of each ear to the opposite eye.
- Temporal position (side view): Aim from the side of the head at a point midway between the eye and the base if the ear.
- Rear of the head: Aim just behind the poll in the direction of the animal’s muzzle.

Captive bolt stunning

The frontal position should be used. Note that camel bulls in rut develop thick glands on the top of their head that prevent the effective use of the captive bolt by the frontal method.
Follow immediately with second method (eg exsanguination).

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous route
Large volumes of euthanasia solution are required for adult animals.

Crocodiles

Shooting

Shot to the brain.
Point of aim is the cranial platform.
Spinal severance followed by pithing

Overdose of barbiturate

Intraperitoneal route
Use in small crocodiles only.
Refer to the DEWHA (2009) Code of Practice on the Humane Treatment of Wild and Farmed Australian Crocodiles for further details.

Deer

Shooting

Shot to the brain.
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): This is the preferred method for fawns/calves. The firearm is aimed at the middle of the forehead at the crossing point of two imaginary lines drawn from the eyes to the tops of the opposite ears. In stags this point is found between, and sometimes just behind, the antlers.
- Temporal position (side view): This method is preferred for mature/older animals. The firearm should be aimed at the side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear on the same side of the head.
- Rear of the head (rear view): This method is preferred for mature/older animals that cannot be approached from the side. The firearm should be aimed at the back of the head at a point just behind the base of the antlers and directed towards the animals’ muzzle.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation
Intravenous route

Dogs

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm is aimed at a point midway between the level of the eyes and the base of the ears, but slightly off to one side so as to miss the bony ridge that runs down the middle of the skull. The aim should be slightly across the centreline of the skull and towards the spine.
Temporal position (side view): The firearm is aimed at the side of the head at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation
Intravenous route

Echidna

Anaesthetic chamber supplied with halothane, methoxyflurane or carbon dioxide

Overdose of barbiturate

There are no easily accessible veins.
Intraperitoneal route
May need prior sedation

Shooting

Shot to the brain

Foxes

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm is aimed at a point midway between the level of the eyes and the base of the ears, but slightly off to one side so as to miss the bony ridge that runs down the middle of the skull. The aim should be slightly across the centreline of the skull and towards the spine.
- Temporal position (side view): The firearm is aimed at the side of the head at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation
Intravenous route

Goats

Shooting

Shot to the brain
The horn structures on adult goats make the temporal (side-on) or rear head shots the preferred points of aim. Shots to the front of the head can be used on kids, however this method is not recommended for mature goats as the brain is located well back in the skull.
Points of aim:
- Temporal position (side view): The firearm is aimed from the side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear on the same side of the head. The bullet should be directed horizontally into the skull.
- Rear of the head: The firearm should be aimed at the back of the head at a point between the base of the horns and directed towards the mouth.

Captive bolt stunning

Follow immediately with a second method (eg exsanguination).

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous route (jugular vein)

Horses/Donkeys

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm should be directed at the point of intersection of diagonal lines taken from the base of each ear to the opposite eye.
- Temporal position (side view): The horse is shot from the side so that the bullet enters the skull midway between the eye and the base of the ear.

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous route
Administration of barbiturate with either xylazine or succinyl choline (a neuromuscular blocking agent) is recommended. Sodium pentobarbitone alone may result in unacceptable excitement prior to unconsciousness.
Should only be attempted by well-trained personnel.
Large volumes of euthanasia solution are required for adult animals.
May need prior sedation.

Captive bolt stunning

Follow immediately with a second method eg exsanguination.

Macropods

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Most humane method for adult animals.
Points of aim:
- Temporal position: This method is the preferred head shot as it is a larger target area. The firearm should be aimed at the side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear on the same side of the head.
- Frontal position: The firearm is aimed at the middle of the forehead so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between the level of the eyes and the base of the ears.
- Rear of the head: This method is sometimes used on animals that cannot be approached from the side. The firearm should be aimed at the back of the head at a point midway between the base of the ears and directed towards the animal’s muzzle.

Stunning by a blow to the head

Suitable for larger pouch young.
If damage to the brain is not sufficient to cause immediate death stunning must be followed by a secondary method eg exsanguination.

Decapitation with a sharp instrument

Suitable only for very small hairless pouch young.
Refer to the DEWHA (2008) National Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos and Wallabies for Non-commercial Purposes for further details.

Pigs

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): For smaller pigs only. The firearm should be aimed at a point midway across the forehead and about 2cm above the level of the eyes.
Temporal position (side view). For larger pigs. This method is preferred for adult pigs due to the heavier bone structure of the front of the skull. The firearm is aimed from the side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between the eye and the base of the ear on the same side of the head.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation especially in large pigs.
Intravenous route – usually ear vein but not easy to use without prior training.

Captive bolt stunning

Follow immediately with second method (eg exsanguination).
Satisfactory for immature pigs. Problems may occur in adult animals due to large frontal sinuses.
Stunning by a blow to the head followed by exsanguination
For young piglets < 3 weeks old only

Platypus

Overdose of barbiturate

There are no easily accessible veins; therefore the intraperitoneal route should be used. Can be picked up by the tail but beware of venomous spurs on the hindlegs of males.
May need prior sedation if animal cannot be handled readily.

Shooting

Shot to the brain

Possums (brushtail)

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm is aimed at the centre of the head slightly below a line drawn midway between the ears.
- Behind the ear (side view): Shoot from the side aiming behind the ear so that the shot will pass through the brain towards the opposite eye.

Overdose of barbiturate

May need prior sedation.
Intraperitoneal route.

Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2

There are two approaches that can be taken:
- Place the animal in a hessian sack or cloth bag and place this in an anaesthesia chamber OR
- Introduce the gas into a plastic bag that has been placed around a cage containing the possum.
The animal will become unconscious quickly and quietly, followed by death after a period depending on the gas used and its concentration. If preferred, once the animal is unconscious, it may be removed from the cage and euthanased with an intravenous or intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbitone sodium.

Rabbits/Hares

Cervical dislocation

The recommended technique is either (1) cervical dislocation, or (2) stunning, by a sharp blow to the back of the head, followed by neck dislocation:
Neck (cervical) dislocation: This technique should only be used on smaller rabbits (<1 kg). In larger rabbits, greater muscle mass in the neck region makes manual cervical dislocation physically more difficult. Accordingly, it should be performed only by individuals who have demonstrated proficiency in euthanasing heavier animals or preferably, after the rabbit has been stunned by a blow to the head (see below). Hold the rabbit head downwards by grasping the hind legs in one hand; turn the palm of the other hand towards the rabbit head and take the neck between the thumb and index finger or between the index and middle fingers. Push down so that the neck is stretched and the head moves backwards, until dislocation is felt.
Stunning followed by neck (cervical) dislocation. This technique should be used on larger rabbits (>1 kg). Suspend the rabbit by the hind legs, grasping around both hocks with the left hand. Deliver a single, heavy, sharp blow to the back of the skull, behind the ears, with a cudgel. Alternatively, if no implement is available, the rabbit can be picked up by the hind legs and swung so that the back of its head hits a hard surface such as a rock or post. Dislocate the neck using the technique described above.

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): The firearm is aimed at the centre of the head between the eyes.
- Temporal position (side view): The firearm is aimed at a point between the eye and the base of the ear directed towards the opposite eye.

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous or intraperitoneal route
Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2
There are two approaches that can be taken:
- Place the animal in a hessian sack or cloth bag and place this in an anaesthesia chamber OR
- Introduce the gas into a plastic bag that has been placed around a cage containing the possum.
The animal will become unconscious quickly and quietly, followed by death after a period depending on the gas used and its concentration. If preferred, once the animal is unconscious, it may be removed from the cage and euthanased with an intravenous or intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbitone sodium.

Rodents

Do not handle native rodents (mice) by the tail as it will often break off.

Cervical dislocation

This technique should not be used on conscious animals heavier than 150 grams (i.e. adult rats)
Stunning plus exsanguination or cervical dislocation
Mice (non-native) can be held by the tail and swung in an arc so that the back of the head only contacts a hard, solid object.
Rats are held by the hindquarters and brought downwards quickly so as to strike the back of the head on a hard, solid object.

Inhalation of anaesthetic gases or CO2

Involves minimal handling of the animals and larger numbers can be killed simultaneously.

Overdose of barbiturate

Intraperitoneal route

Reptiles – snakes and lizards

Stunning/decapitation/destruction of the brain

A sharp blow just behind the head followed by decapitation and destruction of the brain by pithing.

Shooting

Shot to the brain

Reptiles – tortoises and turtles

Stunning/decapitation/destruction of the brain

A sharp blow just behind the head followed by decapitation and destruction of the brain by pithing.
Shooting

Shot to the brain

Overdose of barbiturate

Intravenous route– injection into the venous sinus in the dorsal midline of the tail.
Intraperitoneal route – enter the abdominal cavity anterior to a hind leg.
May need prior sedation (eg with an injection of Ketamine or alfaxalone into the quadriceps muscle, or in terrestrial species, by inhalation of an anaesthetic gas).

Sheep

Shooting

Shot to the brain
Points of aim:
- Frontal position (front view): Aim at a point in the middle of the face just above the level of the eyes while aiming along the neck.
- Temporal position (side view): Aim from the side of the head at a point midway between the eye and the base if the ear.
- Rear of the head: Aim just behind the poll in the direction of the animal’s muzzle.
- Frontal shots should be used on horned sheep and rams.

Captive bolt stunning

The frontal position should be used.
Follow immediately with a second method (eg exsanguination).

Overdose of barbiturate

By the intravenous route

Exsanguination (or bleeding out)

Prior stunning is required (eg using a captive bolt pistol, .22 rifle, heavy hammer or iron bar)
A long (minimum length 14cm) sharp knife is essential
Make a transverse cut high up on the neck ensuring that the carotid arteries on both sides have been severed. Successful severance of the se arteries, as opposed to the jugular veins which are closer to the surface of the neck, can be recognised by obvious pulsatile bleeding. Both sides need to be cut to ensure that onset of insensibility is rapid.
Do not attempt to sever the spinal cord or dislocate the neck.
This method can be inhumane if the proper technique is not used.

Wombats

Shooting

Shot to the brain

Overdose of barbiturate

It is likely that prior sedation will be required. Wombats are strong animals that can inflict serious bites and scratches.
Intravenous route preferred (via radial vein on medial aspect of forearm, or cephalic vein). Intraperitoneal route can be used after sedation.