Failure of Passive Transfer: Solutions We Have & Breakthroughs We Need
Dr. Prabha Sharma
Ph.D. Scholar
Division of Surgery
ICAR-IVRI
Izatnagar
‘A newborn is like the beginning of all things- wonder, hope and dream of possibilities’
-Eda Leshan
Diseases of newborns resulting in mortality are the major causes of economic losses in livestock production. It is estimated that out of the total calf deaths occurring in the first 3 weeks of life, nearly one-third are due to inadequate colostrum intake. An adequate passive antibody transfer is considered to be the cornerstone of all neonatal preventive health programs. Failure of passive transfer of immunity occurs when a calf fails to absorb adequate quantity and quality of immunoglobulins. There is a direct association between failure of passive transfer and presentation of diseases like septicemia, diarrhea, pneumonia and death in calves in the early pre-weaning period. Thus, failure of passive transfer is not a disease, but a condition that predisposes the neonates to the development of other diseases.
Importance of Passive transfer
The bovine fetus has syndesmochorial placentation that does not allow contact between maternal and fetal blood thereby inhibiting the transfer of immunoglobulins(Ig) from mother to fetus. Thus, a bovine calf born with agammaglobulinemia and from early postnatal to until to third and fourth months of life relies only upon an adequate intake of colostrum in order to get antibodies and confer other immune factors. Absorption of immunoglobulins and other macromolecules in the small intestine of the newborn calf is short-term and non-selective which is induced and also stimulated to close by feeding. This is called “passive transfer” and only occurs during the first 24 hours after birth. At 24 hours, the gut is completely closed and there is no immunoglobulin absorption into the circulation. Maturation of small intestinal cells increased abomasal acidity and the development of intestinal secretions could be involved in the cessation of absorption of immunoglobulins. Although colostrum or the first milk contains several different types of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA and IgM), IgG accounts for 85% of the total volume. IgG absorption is most efficient in the first 4 hours of life and declines rapidly after 12 hours of age. Therefore, the efficiency of IgG depends upon the time of first colostrum feeding, the concentration of IgG in the colostrum and the total amount of colostrum fed per kg body weight.
Factors affecting the passive transfer in calves
Many factors have been established to affect the absorption of IgG in neonates described as follows;
- Maternal factors
a.Age
Colostrum of young cows or first calving heifers has lower IgG concentration than older cows. Similarly, IgG concentration increases gradually as the animal ages reaching a peak at third and fourth calvings.
- Breed
Dairy breeds with higher total milk volume at first milking typically have lower Ig concentration per unit of colostrum than other breeds with lower total volume at first milking.
- Prepartum nutrition of the dam
The concentration of Ig in the colostrum of over-conditioned cows is 50% less than that of properly conditioned cows.
- Periparturient vaccination of the dam
Vaccinating pregnant cows and heifers during the final 3-6 weeks preceding calving results in an increased concentration of antigen-specific protective colostral antibodies.
e.Dystocia/delayed parturition
Dystocia or delayed parturition leads to diminishing passive transfer to the calves as respiratory or metabolic acidosis can develop during prolonged parturition. Hypoxemia in the dystotic calf, inability to stand and suckle, intestinal lesion in the calves due to prolonged dystocia impair absorption of the immunoglobulins.
- Udder malformations
Calves born to cows with poor udder conformation and history of mastitis are considered at higher risk for failure of passive transfer.
- Neonatal factors
a.Time of ingestion of colostrum
Calves fed earlier will have significantly higher serum IgG concentrations than those fed later when similar concentrations and volumes of colostrum are fed.
b.Colostrum quantity
It is recommended that calves should be fed 10% to 12% of their body weight of colostrum at first feeding.
b.Routes of colostrum ingestion:
The natural act of suckling enhances and increases the efficiency of absorption of Ig as compared to a bucket, nipple bottle or esophageal feeder.
- Presence of dam
The immunoglobulin absorption was increased in calves that were housed in close proximity to their dam when compared to calves housed away from their dam.
- External factors
Environmental temperature
High temperature or heat stress decreases the rate of transfer of Ig. Similarly, low temperature decreases the blood flow to the small intestine thereby affecting the absorption capability of antibodies in the small intestine.
Assessment of Passive Transfer
The level of IgG in serum is the most accurate method to diagnose the failure of passive transfer.
The level for failure is <8g/l for complete failure, 8-10g/l for partial failure and >10 g/l for adequate transfer of IgG.
Fig 1. Key factors for Colostrum feeding management
Ideally, all calves should be assessed for passive transfer within 12-24 hours of birth, and at least once within the first few days of life. The gold standard test is radial immunodiffusion, and adequate levels of IgG are considered to be 1,000 mg/dl (10 mg/ml) or higher. In veterinary practice, the most practical routine tests for assessment of passive transfer are the ELISA, sodium sulfite turbidity test, and measurement of serum total protein.
Management
The essence of good colostrum feeding is;
- Quality is essential to ensure there are sufficient antibodies (against diseases) in the colostrum for absorption
- Quantity to ensure the calf ingests sufficient of these antibodies
- Quickly means the calf’s digestive tract is still receptive to absorb the antibodies
- Manually stripping the teats of the dam to remove wax plugs and to check for the presence of colostrum can be done to facilitate successful nursing attempts.
- The neonate should be examined for any obvious congenital problems that may hamper the ability to stand or to nurse effectively like signs of prematurity, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and cleft palate etc.
- A clean environment with reduced bacterial exposure should be maintained as it will lessen the chances to contract failure of passive transfer.
Treatment and Prevention
- High-quality colostrum from a cow is the best way to treat the failure of passive transfer in the first 12 hours of the calf’s life. 2-4 liters of colostrum should be fed orally and after gut closure treatment with commercially available plasma (20 ml/kg IV) or a whole blood transfusion (1-3 liters) from the dam is most effective.
- Although feeding high-quality, clean maternal colostrum is considered the gold standard, the use of high-quality colostrum supplements or colostrum replacements may be attractive for a variety of reasons,i.e. availability, consistency, and convenience. A major consideration of feeding these products is to deliver an adequate dose of IgG to the calf
Colostrum replacer contains a minimum of 100g of IgG per dose, protein, minerals, vitamins, and energy and is designed to be fed especially when no maternal colostrum is available. Whereas, colostrum supplement product is designed to be fed in addition to and after natural colostrum.
The failure of passive transfer can be best prevented by a colostrum management program that assures an adequate amount of colostrum intake during the first four hours of life by promoting suckling and force-feeding. The prophylactic use of broad-spectrum, parenteral antimicrobials in calves must be combined with management practices that minimize pathogen exposure because antimicrobials will not negate the effects of a high pathogen load.
Conclusion
Colostrum contains immunoglobulins that, when absorbed by the calf’s gut, help protect the calf from common disease challenges. The absorption of immunoglobulins by the newborn calf is a complex, non-selective process that can be influenced by many factors in which the amount and concentration of IgG in the colostrum and the time at first feeding are crucial. Colostrum management is the single most important management factor to prevent failure of passive transfer. Milking the cow within 1-2 hours after calving then feeding the calf the correct amount) of high-quality colostrum immediately (at 1-2 hours of age) are the recommended best management practices for optimal calf nutrition, health, and survival. Studies clearly revealed that calves with adequate passive transfer grow better, have lower mortality and health cost, and as adults have improved first and second lactation milk production, thereby leading to a healthy and hearty life ahead.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257684/
