FEEDING STRATEGIES OF DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA FOR GOOD HEALTH & BETTER MILK YIELD

December 29, 2020

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FEEDING STRATEGIES OF DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA FOR GOOD HEALTH & BETTER MILK YIELD

Courtesy-Technical Team-LITD (LIVESTOCK INSTITUTE OF TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT) & “दुग्धवाहिनी”

Reference-On Request

Feeding is an important aspect of dairying as it accounts for around 70% of total cost of milk production. Cattle feed produced by the Companies, Milk Unions/Federations is a balanced source of essential nutrients required for body maintenance, growth and milk production. It is manufactured using good quality grains, oil cakes/ meals, brans, molasses, common salt, minerals and vitamins. It is comparatively cheaper and highly palatable to the animals. Cattle feed contains protein, energy, minerals and vitamins required for the growth, maintenance and milk production of animals. It is advantageous to feed extra cattle feed to pregnant animals for proper development of foetus. It increases reproductive efficiency, milk production as well as fat percentage of milk. Growing animals should be fed 1 to 2 kg of compound cattle feed daily. Milking animals should be fed 2 kg of compound cattle feed for body maintenance and additional 400 g to cows and 500 g to buffaloes for every litre of milk produced. In addition to this quantity, 1 kg compound cattle feed and 1 kg good quality oil cake should also be given to pregnant animals during the last two months of pregnancy.

Managing optimum productivity of dairy cattle in terms of quality milk production and efficient breeding plays a vital role in profitable dairy farming. Nutrition is one of the most important factors in their performance, health and welfare. Many nutrients are utilised by the body for milk production, and increased nutrient demands for production can negatively impact reproduction in dairy cows. High-yielding cows require special nutritional care, especially during periods of production stress. Modern, high-yielding animals are either in lactation or in advanced pregnancy, posing a regular metabolic stress to the body.

Meeting the nutritional needs of the high-yielding cow for optimum production and reproduction is a challenge for modern dairy producers. Energy and protein feed ingredients, in addition to many trace elements and vitamins, play important roles in milk production and reproduction. It is not only the quantities of energy and protein source, but also their quality that plays a vital role for optimum production and reproduction.

Energy: additional supplementation a must for high-yielding cow

In lactating dairy cattle, milk yield usually peaks at four to eight weeks postpartum, but dry matter intake does not increase proportionately to meet energy requirements until 10-14 weeks postpartum. Consequently, high-yielding cows experience some degree of negative energy balance during the early postpartum period. High-yielding cows have a gap between energy supply and demand. To fulfil the higher energy need for milk production, animals utilize body reserves resulting in impaired health and frequent metabolic disorders.

Energy is the major nutrient required by adult cattle; and inadequate energy intake has a detrimental impact on milk yield and reproduction. Cows under negative energy balance have extended periods of anovulation. Postpartum anestrus, as well as infertility, is magnified by losses of body condition during the early postpartum period.

Strategy to increase energy intake

The extent and duration of postpartum negative energy balance is influenced by genetic potentiality for milk production, dietary energy density and dry matter intake. Nutritional management strategies can be employed to minimize the extent and duration of negative energy balance.

In view of the fact that dry matter intake during the early lactation period goes down, increasing energy density of the ration is the only available option to improve energy intake, which can be achieved through supplementation of grains or fat.

Diets containing high levels of grain may cause metabolic disturbances, such as rumen acidosis, and may ultimately result in low milk and milk fat production.

To avoid these problems, fat can be added to increase the energy density of the diet. Fat supplementation also has other potential benefits, such as increased absorption of fat-soluble nutrients and reduced dustiness of feed. In addition, feeding fat to dairy cows generally improves fertility.

Dietary supplementation with fat

Vegetable oils as such are not recommended for ruminants because the unsaturated fatty acids are toxic to rumen bacteria, especially to fibre degrading bacteria. Unsaturated fat supplementation reduces fibre digestion, thereby defeating the major objective of increasing the availability of energy. Therefore, the supplementation of fat for dairy cows is achieved by means of bypass fats, which pass the rumen without any degradation. Rumen bypass fats can be either rumen-protected or rumen-stable fats. These are inert in the rumen and are digested in the lower GI tract, hence they are not harmful to rumen bacteria.

Rumen-stable and rumen-protected fats

The protected fats are mostly either calcium salts of long-chain fatty acids or saturated fats. Protection does not mean stability; usually protection depends on the conditions of the rumen and its pH. Rumen-protected calcium-soap or calcium salts of long-chain fatty acids were developed to improve milk production. Being a chemical reaction product, they have many disadvantages.

Because of the pungent soap taste, there is usually poor acceptance of the feed. A further disadvantage is that larger amounts of feed concentrate, low pH values in feed and in the rumen, impair the stability of calcium soaps resulting in the release of the unsaturated fatty acids. These unsaturated fatty acids may negatively influence milk fat formation and may also disturb ruminal digestion, as described earlier.

A recent development in fat supplementation for dairy cows is rumen-stable fats, which are fractionated triglycerides, rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly palmitic acid. Rumen-stable fats are stable at various pH conditions. Their fatty acids are largely saturated so that they pass through the rumen almost unchanged. As a result, the fats reach the small intestine where they are broken down by enzymes and, subsequently, utilised by the body as an efficient source of energy.

Protein nutrients: essential for growth, maintenance and production

Dairy cattle, like other animals, require essential amino acids that must be absorbed from the small intestine. Ruminants obtain amino acids from two sources – microbial proteins and bypass protein, or rumen undegraded protein.

Microbial protein: Microorganisms, especially bacteria, in the rumen assist in providing the total protein and individual amino acid requirements of ruminants. Rumen microorganisms are able to synthesize protein and amino acids from non-protein nitrogen compounds, such as urea and ammonia. The microorganisms in the rumen synthesize amino acids by combining ammonia and carbohydrates. These amino acids become part of the microbial protein. This microbial protein is then digested in the small intestine.

When the digestible energy content of the ration is high enough, one third or more of the total protein needs of many ruminant rations may be supplied by nitrogen from non-protein nitrogen sources. Growing and finishing cattle can effectively use non-protein nitrogen. Microbial protein production depends on the rumen conditions.

Microbial protein synthesis in the rumen depends largely on the availability of carbohydrates and nitrogen in the rumen. Rumen bacteria generally have the ability to utilise majority of ammonia that is released in the rumen from deamination of amino acids and the hydrolysis of non-protein nitrogen compounds. However, dietary conditions often occur in which the rate of ammonia release in the rumen exceeds the rate of uptake by ruminal bacteria. The condition may occur because of a surplus of rumen degraded protein or a lack of available energy, resulting in inefficient utilization of fermentable substrates and reduced synthesis of microbial protein.

Bypass protein: The best way to increase milk protein

High-yielding cows, however, have a much higher requirement of amino acids that cannot be fulfilled by rumen microbes, even at high rates of synthesis. The diet of such cows should include proteins of relatively low degradability in the rumen that will escape breakdown until they reach the intestine. This escape protein is known as bypass protein or rumen undegraded protein, which is digested in the intestine and the amino acids are used for the synthesis of tissue and milk protein.

Diets for dairy cows should contain both rumen degraded protein and rumen undegraded protein, at an ideal ratio of 65:35. Usually, reliance on feed proteins with a high content of digestible RUP is greatest in high-producing cows when most or all of the forage is provided by high-quality grasses and legumes. In these situations, the basal diet often contains adequate or more amounts of RDP, but is deficient in RUP. Thus, protein supplementation should be limited to RUP to avoid excesses of RDP. Milk protein yield can be increased linearly by increasing RUP content in feed. Rumen undegraded protein is assumed to be 100% true protein.

Chromium : Essential for energy metabolism

During the phase of negative energy balance, efficient utilization of energy results in higher productivity and better health. Chromium is an essential element that is required for the efficient utilisation of dietary energy. Glucose, produced from carbohydrates, is one of the major sources of energy. Insulin takes major part in the glucose metabolism. Chromium acts biologically as a component of glucose tolerance factor, which enhances tissue sensitivity to insulin and glucose utilization.

The transition period from 21 days prepartum to approximately 21 days postpartum is a critical period in regard to health and subsequent milk production of high-producing dairy cows. Supplementing high-producing dairy cows with chromium during the transition period can increase feed intake and milk production during early lactation. Chromium supplementation can also improve reproductive performance, cell-mediated and humoral-immune responses. Chromium helps reduce the effect of physiological stress.

Inorganic forms of chromium are very poorly absorbed. Chromium chelated with organic compounds greatly increases its absorption. Chromium nicotinate and chromium picolinate are usually considered the most available sources of supplemental chromium.

An unhealthy transition period, and subsequently negative energy balance during the early lactation period, not only reduces profit through reduced milk production, but often leads to metabolic disorders and impaired reproduction. Supplementing dairy cows, especially during the early lactation period, with rumen-stable fat, bypass protein and chelated chromium can reduce the extent and duration of the negative energy balance, and it can improve health, milk production, milk quality and reproduction performance.

Feeding dairy cow

· Feed alone constitute 60 per cent of the production cost of milk. Hence, feeding management play a vital role in farm economy.

· The nutrient requirement should be determined for maintenance as well as for milk production and to meet the fat percentage in milk and gestation.

· Based on the nutrient requirement ration should be computed.

· In general the dry matter from roughage should not exceed 2 per cent of cow’s live weight nor should it be less than 1 per cent

Feeding dairy cow at different stages of lactation

· Under practical feeding condition it is not possible to select much among the roughages or vary the ingredient in concentrate mix.

· The farm manger should carefully plan a cropping programme to ensure year round supply of mixture of leguminous and non leguminous forages.

· One feeding schedule based on thump rule is

Stage of lactation	Quantity of green grass to be give (kg) for animal weighing			Concentrate ( kg)
Stage of lactation	250 kg	300 kg	350 kg	Concentrate ( kg)
Dry cow	25	30	35	o For non-pregnant cows no concentrate is required. o Pregnant cows should be fed additional quantity of 1.5 kg of concentrate from 7th month of gestation o In case of dry cow, allowance up to 1 kg concentrate can be given if the condition of cow is poor or the fodder quality is inferior.
Milch cow	25	30	35	o 1.0 kg for every 2.5 kg of milk of average 4% fat percentage, in case of buffalo 1.0 kg for every 2.0 kg of milk produced.

Early lactation

· The recently calved high producing cow is unable to eat enough feed to support her milk production.

· This means that the cow should have enough reserve to store nutrient to be drawn to tide over the period of heavy demand in early lactation, during which period the cow loses weight.

Challenge feeding

· Challenge feeding means the cow with high milk production potential are to be fed increase quantity of concentrate to ‘challenge’ them to produce to the maximum.

· This starts two weeks before expected date of calving. This challenge feeding will condition her digestive system for the increased amount of concentrate and provide enough nutrients to initiate lactation on a higher plane.

· Two weeks before the expected date of calving start feeding 500 g of concentrate mixture.

· The quantity should be increased daily by 300-400 g until the cow is consuming 500-1000g concentrate for every 100 kg body weight.

· After calving, the concentrate allowance should be increased by 500 g per day in the first 2 weeks of lactation until the cow achieves peak yield somewhere in the second month of lactation on free choice basis.

· After this the milk yield is tested and the concentrate allowance is fixed accordingly.
Challenge feeding schedule:

Period	Concentrate allowance
Last 2 weeks before calving	Starting from 500g, increase 300 – 400g daily until the cow is eating 500 – 1000g per 100kg body weight.
First 2 weeks of lactation	Increase 500g per day to free choice level.
Second week to peak yield (test day)	Free choice
From test day onwards	According to production as per thumb rules. E.g. 1Kg for every 21/2 kg milk produced
Remaining lactation	Concentrate adjusted to monthly test of milk Production
All periods	Green fodder and dry fodder given adequately

Feeding during mid and late lactation

· The nutrient deficit period of early lactation is followed by a relatively stable period during which the cow can consume enough feed to meet the various demands for nutrients and the body weight of the cow remains more or less stable.

· During this period the cow maybe fed a well balanced ration of god quality fodder and concentrate according to the milk yield and fat percentage of milk.

· During the late lactation, intake ability of the cow exceeds nutrient needs. This is the time when the cow starts needing extra allowance for the growing foetus.

· This is also the period when the cow can readily replenish the already depleted body reserve and gain weight very fast.

· From 7 ½ month to 10 months of lactation, cow may be fed 1-2 kg concentrate feed in addition to their nutrient requirement for maintenance and milk production to replenish the condition lost in early lactation.

Feeding high producing dairy cows

· High producing dairy cow should eat a large volume of nutrient daily to sustain th milk production at that level.

· This is simply not possible with bulky forages alone due to physical limitation of volume intake (space in the rumen).

· If high level of concentrate is fed it may change the microbial and chemical atmosphere of the rumen and cause dysfunction.

· Rumen fermentation can be controlled by a) composition of ration b) ratio of ingredients in the ration c) quantity of feed supplied d) frequency of feeding and e) physical form of feed.

· For a high producer the forage fed should of superior quality which also reduces the quantity of concentrate required.

· Crude fibre is very important in the ration of milking cow because it is well known that rumen fermentation leading to acetic acid production is dependent on the percentage of cellulose in the ration.

· Cows need acetic acid for maintaining normal milk fat percentage as well as total milk production.

· Ruminant ration should contain a minimum of 20-25 per cent crude fibre.

· Higher percentage of grain in the ration reduce cellulose digestibility and cause disturbances like depressed milk fat, depressed milk production and in extreme cases damage to the rumen wall, development of acidosis and death.

· Frequency of feeding: dividing the daily ration into 3 or 4 parts and feeding them in so many installments has been found to be useful in overcoming this problem.

· This also results in greater digestibility and better utilization of protein apart from preventing explosive release of acids.

· A high concentrate ration induces less amount of saliva flow compared to roughages.

· But when feed is given in 4 or 5 installments the proportion of Na and K salts in rumen return to normal.lactation.

Feeding dry cow

· Feed alone constitute 60 per cent of the production cost of milk. Hence, feeding management play a vital role in farm economy.

· The nutrient requirement should be determined for maintenance as well as for milk production and to meet the fat percentage in milk and gestation.

· Based on the nutrient requirement ration should be computed.

· In general the dry matter from roughage should not exceed 2 per cent of cow’s live weight nor should it be less than 1 per cent

Mixing of concentrates and roughages

· Traditionally, concentrate are fed at the time of milking. Roughages re offered either before or after milking.

· In high producers, when concentrates are fed in heavy doses at milking time, the appetite of the cows will be reduced temporarily and they may not eat roughages for some time.

· Consequent, there will be 4 different fermentation, two primarily due to concentrate and two primarily of roughages.

· The feeding of concentrates separately from roughages during a four time feeding schedule reduces acidic acid production and increases propionic acid.

· It has been observed that feeding grain on top of silage increased the fat percentage of milk production.

· Feeding concentrates either on top of forages or mixed with forages has been four to favour optimum rumen fermentation.

· This has led to the concept of complete feeds which incorporates both roughages and concentrates.

Complete feeding

· In order to simplify feeding of dairy cows complete diet system have been introduced.

· Complete diet is an intimate mixture of concentrate and roughages in a desired proportion processed in such a way as to preclude selective eating. It forms the sole source of food for the cow.

· It reduces labour requirement and keeps a tighter control on the cow’s nutrition.

· It also facilitates the application of least cost method of ration formulation.

· Feeding of complete diet ad libitum to dairy cow has been found to be advantageous in that it increases feed intake, preserve milk quality as result in better utilization of nitrogen.

· These are in addition to the most obvious advantage of prevention acidosis from over-eating of concentrate by high producer.

· The complete diet feeding system is radically different from conventional feeding method in that there is no individual approach in feeding cows.

· Group feeding is practiced in complete feeding system. There are also fewer changes in diet formulation according to the milk yield.

· This has come as a result of the experimental and practical feeding observation that yield and efficiency are not improved by individual rationing compared to flat rate feeding of cows grouped according to milk yield or stage of lactation.

Recommended Nutrient inclusions for Cattle and Buffaloes

Major minerals	Micro minerals	Vitamins
Calcium	Iron	Vitamin A
Phosphorus	Copper	Vitamin D
Magnesium	Zinc	Vitamin E
Sodium	Manganese	Vitamin K
Pottasium	Cobalt	Vitamin C
Chlorine	Selenium
	Thyroid
	Fluorine

Major minerals

Calcium

Role of Calcium

99% of the calcium in the body is present in the bones and teeth.
Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles.
Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood.
Calcium is necessary for activation of enzymes like trypsin, adenosine triphosphatase.

Clinical signs

In young animals calcium deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
In adult animals calcium deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition in dairy cows shortly after calving, is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms, and in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.

Supplementation

Ground limestone
Steamed bone meal
Dicalcium phosphate and
Green leafy crops, especially legumes, are good sources of calcium.

Phosphorus

Role of Phosphorus

Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone.
Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates. ( ADP & ATP)
Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein and lipids which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds.
Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid transport and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes.
Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA.
Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.

Clinical signs

In young animals phosphorus deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
In adult animals phosphorus deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
‘Pica’ or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials.
In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility, apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of oestrus.

Supplementation

Cereal grains,
Fish meal and
Meat products

Magnesium

· Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus.

· Essential constituent of bone and teeth.

· Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator.

· Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP formation

· Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the biosynthesis of proteins.

Clinical signs

In adult ruminants low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) causes a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany /magnesium tetany /lactation tetany / grass staggers.
It is characterized by nervousness, tremors, twitching of the facial muscles, staggering gait and convulsions.

Supplementation

Wheat bran
Dried yeast
Cottonseed cake
Linseed cake
The mineral supplement most frequently used is magnesium oxide, which is sold commercially as calcined magnesite.

Sodium

· It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.

· It maintains osmotic pressure.

· Control water metabolism in the tissue.

· Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.

· Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.

· Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids.

· Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Clinical signs

A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure, which results in dehydration of the body.
Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of digested proteins and energy.

Pottasium

o It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.

o They maintain osmotic pressure.

o Control water metabolism in the tissue.

o Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.

o Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.

o Potassium is the main cation of intracellular fluid.

o Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Clinical signs

Diets low in potassium induces retarded growth
Weakness and
Tetany, followed by death.

Chlorine

· It regulates acid base equilibrium of the body.

· They maintain osmotic pressure

· Control water metabolism in the tissue.

· Essential for the operation of enzyme systems.

· Neural and muscular conduction and transmission.

· Chlorine plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it occurs as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.

· Stored largely in body fluids and soft tissues.

Deficiency

A dietary deficiency of chlorine leads to an abnormal increase of the alkali reserve of the blood (alkalosis).

Excesss

Excess of sodium chloride in the diet leads to salt toxicity.
It is characterized by excessive thirst, muscular weakness and oedema.

Micro minerals

Iron

Role of Iron

More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most important being haemoglobin and myoglobin.
Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.
Ferritin, is a protein containing iron, is present in the spleen, liver, kidney and bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.
Haemosiderin is another storage form of iron.
Iron has a major role in many of biochemical reactions, particularly in connection with enzymes of the electron transport chain (cytochromes).
Electrons are transported by the oxidation and reduction activity of bound iron.
Enzymes containing or activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases, phenylalanine hydroxylase and all the tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes.

Clinical signs

Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing suckling animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low.
Iron deficiency anaemia is not common in calves because in practice it is unusual to restrict them to a milk diet without supplementary feeding.

Supplementation

Legume and oil seed meal
Cereals straw and bran
Ferrous sulphate salts and
iron dextran

Copper

Role of Copper

Copper is the integral component of enzymes namey Ceruloplasmin (ferrooxidase), Erythrocuprein, Cytochrome oxidase, Lysyl oxidase, Tyrosinase.
Copper is the integral component Turacin, a pigment of feathers.
Copper is required for maintenance of crimp of wool.

Deficiency

A deficiency of copper impairs the animal’s ability to absorb iron leads to anemia
Poor growth
Bone disorders.
Scouring, gastro-intestinal disturbances
Infertility,
Depigmentation of hair and wool,
Lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with muscular inco-ordination, and occur especially in young lambs – swayback condition also known as ‘enzootic ataxia’ or neonatal ataxia.
The signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying staggering gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs.
Loss of ‘crimp’ in wool – ‘stringy’ or ‘steely’ wool
‘falling disease’ – sudden death due to rupture of major blood vessels
Copper deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.

Excess

Continuous ingestion of copper in excess of nutritional requirements leads to an accumulation of the element in the body tissues, especially in the liver. Hence copper can be regarded as a cumulative poison.
Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells,
Jaundice,
Loss of appetite and
Death from hepatic coma.

Source

Seeds and seed by-products
Application of copper containing fertilizer to lands
Provision of copper containing salt licks
Ingestion of organic complexes of Copper

Zinc

Role of Zinc

A high concentration of zinc is present in the skin, hair and wool of animals.
Several enzymes in the animal body are known to contain zinc; these include carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.
In addition zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems

Clinical signs

Deficiency of Zinc causes subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and leads to reproductive disorders in farm animals.
Symptoms of zinc deficiency, in calves include inflammation of the nose and mouth, stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis characterized by Reddening of the skin followed by eruptions, which develop, into scabs.

Requirement

Cattle require 30 mg/ kg of feed.

Source

Yeast
Bran and germ of cereal grains.
Animal protein by-products such as meat meal and fishmeal are usually richer sources of the element than plant protein supplements.

Manganese

Role of Manganese

An activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinases.
As a constituent of enzymes such as arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase.
Manganese through its activation of glycosyl transferases is required for the formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
Manganese containing Superoxide dismutase catalyses the reactions that promote immunity in animals.

Clinical signs

Deficiency of Manganese causes retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities and ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure.
Low manganese diets for cows leads to depress or delay oestrus and conception, and to increase abortion.

Requirement

Cattle: 25 mg/Kg of feed

Source

Bran and wheat bran, offals.
Most green foods contain adequate amounts.
Manganese Salts: Oxide, chloride, carbonate

Cobalt

Role of Cobalt

Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin B12.
Cobalt acts as an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions.

Clinical signs

Cobalt deficiency causes vitamin B 12 deficiency in ruminants.
Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or Enzootic marasmus characterized by decreased feed intake, emaciation, loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal muscles, decreased growth rate and fatty degeneration of liver.

Requirement

0.07 ppm in the DM – for dairy cattle

Source

salt licks
mineral mixtures or
By placing cobalt oxide bullet in the ventral sac of rumen using a cobalt gun pellets.

Selenium

Role of Selenium

Selenium is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme, protecting cell membrances from oxidative damage.
Selenium has a sparing effect on vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption of the vitamin.
Selenium also reduces the amount of vitamin E required to maintain the integrity of lipid membranes and aids the retention of Vitamin E in plasma.

Clinical signs

The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
Nutritional myopathy, also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.
The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and after standing, a trembling and staggering gait. The animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads. This condition known as white muscle disease.
The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.

Selenium toxicity

Animals grazing chronically some species of plants (Astragalus racemosa) that grow in seleniferous areas contain very high levels of selenium named as Alkali disease and blind staggers.
Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail and hoof deformities.
Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure, can arise from sudden exposure to high selenium intakes.

Thyroid

Role of Thyroid

Iodine plays an important role in the synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid gland.
The thyroid hormones accelerate reactions in most organs and tissues in the body, thus increasing the basal metabolic rate, accelerating growth, and increasing the oxygen consumption of the whole organism.

Clinical signs

The main indication of deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland.
The thyroid being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals manifests itself as a swelling of the neck, ‘big neck’.
Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most outstanding consequences of reduced thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in iodine give birth to hairless, weak or dead young.

Requirement

Cattle 400- 800 micro gram /day

Supplementation

The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin like seaweeds, fish meal etc.
In areas where goiter is endemic, precautions are generally taken by supplementing the diet with the element, usually in the form of iodized salt.

Fluorine

Excess – Clinical signs

Fluorine is a very toxic element, with ruminants being more susceptible, causes a condition called as flurosis.
There is dental pitting and wear, leading to exposed pulp cavities.
Further increases in fluorine cause depression of appetite, lameness and reduced production.
Bone and joint abnormalities also occur, probably owing to ingested fluorine being deposited in the bone crystal lattice as calcium fluoride.
The commonest sources of danger from this element are

o Fluoride-containing water,

o Herbage contaminated by dust from industrial pollution and

o The use of soft or raw rock phosphate supplements.

Vitamins

Vitamin A

Role of Vitamin A

Synthesis of glycoprotein to maintain integrity of epithelial cells.
In bone formation synthesis of mucopolysacharides.
Synthesis of the visual pigment Rhodopsin.
Retinol and retinoic acid (RA) are essential for embryonic development during fetal development.

Clinical signs

Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation, known as “night blindness.”
Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva (corner of the eye) called Bitot’s spots.
Severe or prolonged vitamin A deficiency causes a condition called xeropthalmia (dry eye) characterized by changes in the cells of the cornea that ultimately result in corneal opacity, keratinization of the cornea, corneal ulcers, scarring, and blindness.
Sometimes vitamin A deficiency can lead to obstruction of lacrimal ducts due to degenerated epithelial cells leading to decreased output of tears.
Vitamin A is needed for bone formation. If vitamin A is deficient optic foramen is not formed properly. Small size optic foramen leads to the constriction of optic nerve. Permanent damage to the nerve can lead to permanent blindness.
Infection of gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, uro genital tract and skin is common in Vitamin A deficiency.
Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to infertility or sterility in male.
Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to vaginitis, abnormal estrous cycle, early embryonic mortality, abortion and defective formation of foetus in females.
Deficiency of vitamin A can lead to developmental bone deformities.
Vitamin A deficiency leads to elevated cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) pressure results in thickened duramater leading to under absorption of CSF.

Excess- Clinical signs

Over consumption of preformed vitamin A is called hypervitaminosis A. Symptoms include nausea, headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, dizziness, and dry skin.

Supplementation

Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut),
Egg yolk and milk fat.

Vitamin D

Clinical signs- Deficiency-Rickets

Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and arching of back.
Occasionally there is paralysis.
Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also noticed.

Deficiency – Osteomalacia

Resorption calcium and phosphorus from the bone that was already laid down.
Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities.
It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased amount of calcium and phosphorus

Toxicity – Clinical signs

Vitamin D toxicity (hypervitaminosis D) induces abnormally high serum calcium levels (hypercalcemia), which could result in bone loss, kidney stones and Calcification of organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a long period of time.

Supplementation

Cod liver oils (rich source),
Egg yolk and sun dried roughage’s/grains.

Vitamin E

Role of Vitamin E

Vitamin E functions in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant.
In association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase, it protects cells against oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of the immune system.

Clinical signs -Deficiency

The most frequent and the most important manifestation of Selenium deficiency in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy).
Nutritional myopathy, also known as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves.
The myopathy primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a trembling and staggering gait.
The animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck muscles prevents them from raising their heads popularly known as white muscle disease.
The heart muscle may also be affected and death may result.

Supplementation

Green fodders,
Cereal grains,
Vegetable oils,
Fats,
Nuts,
Oil seeds and
Legumes.

Vitamin K

Role of Vitamin K

Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver, which is necessary for blood clotting.

Deficiency – sweet clover disease

Low Prothrombin level in blood leads to hemorrhagic conditions.
In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K.
Sweet clover contains a compound dicoumarol, which lowers prothrombin content of blood.

Supplementation

Green leafy vegetables,
Synthesized by bacteria in gastro intestinal tract.

Vitamin C

Role of Vitamin C

Formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance (Capillaries, teeth, bone).
Plays an important role in the oxidative reduction reaction of living cells.
Involves in metabolism of tyrosine.
Absorption of iron and incorporation of plasma iron into ferritin.
Hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone, tryptophan, phenylalanine.

Clinical signs-Deficiency

Scurvy in adults characterized by Weakness, bleeding, loosens teeth, swollen joints hemorrhages.
Infantile scurvy characterized by anorexia, listlessness, leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of long bone, gums swollen, dyspnoea, cyanosis, convulsions and death if not treated.
Delay in wound healing.

Supplementation

Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin.
Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables.

Feeding allowances

Feeding allowances for dairy cattle and buffalo

Type of cattle	Stage of the cattle	Green fodder (kg/day/animal)	Dry fodder (kg/day/animal)	Concentrates (kg/day/animal)
Cow (Average weight 250 kg)	Milk yield 5 litres/day	15	5.0	2.0
	Milk yield 5 to 10 litres/day	17.5	5.5	3.0
	Milk yield 10 to 15 litres/day	20.0	6.0	4.0
Cow in gestation	–	15.0	5.0	1.5
Buffalo (Average weight 400 kg)	Milk yield 5 litres/day	15.0	5.0	2.5
	Milk yield 5 to 10 litres/day	20.0	6.0	4.0
	Milk yield more than 10 litres/day	25.0	7.0	5.0
Bull (Average weight 300 kg)	During days of work	20.0	7.0	2.0
Bull (Average weight 300 kg)	During days of no work	15.0	5.5	1.0

Feeding Management of Cattle and Buffalo

Feed ingredients

Commonly available feed ingredients for dairy animals
Cereal grains	Vegetable protein	Milling by products	Animal fat	Vegetable fat
Maize	Groundnut oil cake	De oiled Rice bran	Lard	Corn oil
Bajra	Soybean meal	Wheat bran	Tallow	Groundnut oil
Sorghum	Sunflower oil cake	Rice Polish		Sunflower oil
Broken Rice	Cotton seed meal	Molasses
Oats	Coconut meal
Barley	Linseed meal
Wheat	Mustard cake
	Sesame seed meal

CEREAL GRAIN

Maize or corn (Zea mays)

· Maize has high metabolisable energy value with low fibre content

· It has 8-13% of crude protein.

· It has high TDN of 85%

· Recently, new variety of maize (Floury 2) was produced with high methionine and lysine.

· Farm animals are fed with crushed maize.

· Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid proportion in rumen and hence depresses the butterfat content of milk.

· Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content are prone to aspergillus flavus infestation and produces aflatoxin.

Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides)

· Nutritive value of Bajra is similar to Sorghum

· They have 8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.

· Seeds are hard so it has to be ground or crushed before fed to cattle.

Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare)

· Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical composition.

· They have higher protein and low fat than maize.

· Cattle are fed with ground Sorghum.

Rice (Oryza sativa)

· The crude protein and energy values are comparable to maize.

· It is widely used for human consumption.

· Based on the cost, it can be included in animal feed.

Oats (Avena sativa)

· Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 – 16% with 7-15% of crude protein.

· Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient in oats but abundant in glutamic acid.

· Cattles are fed with crushed or bruised oats.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

· Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude protein

· It has low lysine and less than 2% of oil content.

· Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening animals in UK.

· Verity “Notch 2” developed at UK is rich in lysine.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

· Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein.

· The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is referred as gluten.

· Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since it form dough, which traps the gasses, produced during yeast fermentation.

· Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in the mouth and may lead to digestive upset.

· Do not feed finely ground wheat to farm animals.

VEGETABLE PROTEINS

Groundnut oil cake

· Groundnut oilcake is one of the best protein supplements for livestock feeding and is extensively used.

· Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.

· Groundnut oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.

· The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.

· Groundnut oilcake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in cystein, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium.

Aflatoxin affection

· In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.

· Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage from growing crop to the formulated feed or stored raw material.

· Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A.parasiticus on food and feed materials.

· Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.

· High moisture in the crop, which harvested around wet period and also inadequately dried products, favours the fungal growth and toxin production.

· There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2 and G2 out which B1 is most toxic.

· The most common symptoms in the affected animals are liver damage with marked bile duct proliferation, liver necrosis and hepatic tumors while the other symptoms include gastritis and kidney dysfunction.

Soybean meal

· Soybean meal contains 44% proteins with all indispensable amino acids except cystein and methionine since the concentrations are sub optimal.

· It can be fed to all livestock up to 30% of the ration.

· The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.

· Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans have number of toxic and inhibitory substances.

· These toxic, inhibitory substances and other factors in soybean like saponins can be inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.

Sunflower oil cake

· Sunflower oilcake contains 40% of protein with low lysine and twice the amount of methionine than soy protein.

· It has very short self-life.

· The expeller variety of Sunflower seed meal or cake has high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, when fed in large amount to cows it makes butter soft.

· It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level.

· Sunflower oilcake is not recommended for calves.

Cotton seed meal

· It has a good quality of protein but with low content of cystein, methionine and lysine.

· The calcium to phosphorous ratio is about 1:6, so calcium deficiency may occur.

· Lactating cows can be fed with cotton seed meal but when it was given large amount, milk may become hard and firm, so butter made from such milk fat is difficult churn and may also tend to develop tallow taints.

· Both decorticated cottonseed oilcake as well as undecorticated cottonseed oilcake are available in the market with two grades (Grade I & II) in each varity.

· Cottonseed meal contains 0.3-20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment known as Gossypol, a polyphenolic aldehyde.

· It is an antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor.

· It is toxic to simple stomached animals and the symptoms include depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to cardiac failure.

· Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium hydroxide and iron salts.

· Shearing effect of screw press in expeller process is an efficient gossypol inactivator.

Coconut meal

· It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-6.5% oil content.

· The higher oil meals tend to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence low oil content meal should be preferred.

· It should be restricted to swine and poultry as it contains low protein and high fibre and low fibre coconut meal can be fed to monogastric animals with lysine and methionine supplements.

· Coconut meal produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.

Linseed meal
· Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also rich in phosphorous part of which is present as phytase but has only moderate calcium content. · It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline. · It also has protective action against selenium poisoning. · Linseed oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market.
· Among the oilseed residues linseed is unique because it readily dispersible in water, forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-10% of mucilage. · Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associated enzyme, linase in immature linseed hydrolyses it with the evolution of hydrocyanic acid. · HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and hence, depending on the species the minimum lethal dose taken orally has been estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight. · Proper water washing, drying and storage can reduce glycosides in the feedstuffs. · Linseed oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two verities (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market. · Linseed oilcake/meal is a good food to ruminants.

Mustard cake

· It is widely used cattle feed in Northern India.

· Its nutritive value is lesser than groundnut cake.

· D.C.P and T.D.N values are 27% and 74 % respectively.

· It can be included up to 10% of the ration;

· It has rich calcium and phosphorous content of about 0.6% and 0.1% respectively.

Sesame seed meal / Gingelly oil cake / Til oil cake

· It contains 40% protein, rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low lysine.

· It was produced from the residues of sesame meal after removal of oil from sesame seed.

· There are three verities – red, black, white.

· White is of high nutritive value than red.

· It has high phytic acid.

· Sesame seed meal has laxative action and can be included in the cattle ration upto 15%.

MILLING BY PRODUCTS

Rice bran

· It is the outer coarse coat of the rice grain separated during processing.

· Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.

· The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in market for livestock feeding.

Wheat bran

· Wheat bran is an excellent food with more fibre content.

· It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counter act scouring when it was given dry.

· It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility.

Polishing

· During rice polishing this by products accumulates which contains 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.

· It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.

· Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.

Molasses

· It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared from selected plant material.

· It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicelluloses and minerals.

· Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz. cane molasses, beet molasses, citrus molasses and wood molasses.

· Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10% ash.

· Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher protein (6%).

· Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when oranges or grapes are processed for juice.

· Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein and palatable to cattle.

· Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.

· It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.

· Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FAT

Animal Fat		Vegetable Fat
Lard	Tallow	Corn oil	Groundnut oil	Sunflower Oil

· Fat (Vegetable/Animal) provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate or protein. · Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and lessens the wear on feed mixing equipments. · Vegetable oil like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow are extensively used in livestock feeding. · Animal fat contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, and C24. · Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of linoleic acid. · Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids leads to rancidity and therefore anti oxidants like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.