FLIES MENACE IN THE POULTRY FARMS & ITS CONTROL STRATEGIES

Introduction

In India, poultry has a crucial place as the eggs and chicken meat are eminent and rich sources of protein, vitamins and minerals. Poultry also provides rich organic manure and is a valuable source of income and employment to millions of farmers and other people engaged in associated activities in the poultry culture. The bigger and richer the industry, more of the problems they face. The worst issue faced by poultry farmers is the infectious diseases spread by flies and other insects in their farms. Fly menace is an important concern globally, wherever poultry farming is an important economic activity. Flies area a major domestic, medical, and veterinary pest that causes irritation, spoils food, and acts as a route for many pathogenic organisms.

The factors which lead flies to poultry includes, the poultry manure and wet feed, litter and bedding material. The manure moisture and ammonia helps in environment favorable for the flies to attack along with feeding and breeding at the farm.

Fly control methods have remained constant over the years. Putting physical barriers and directly spraying insecticides are some of the method used by farmers. These methods are effective in their own way but they are very time consuming and costly for farmers and on the other hand insecticides available in the market can also harm the food of the animals.

Fly menace-food safety association

Safe food now-a-days is highly desired in food production industry globally. Poultry meat, eggs, and products derived from them are of utmost importance in maintaining the safe food chain. When we talk about food safety, special attention should be given to prevent contamination of poultry feed and the products made out of egg and meat with flies and the organisms for which it acts as a vector.

Food safety at present is such a challenge that the theme of this world health day was “food safety, from farm to plate (and everywhere in between)”. One of the major reasons which evoked this concern of food safety include the hazards caused by fly menace at the farms which not only lead to reduced production performance but also food safety challenges to the human population. Indiscriminate use of antimicrobials and chemicals to combat such challenges again increases the threat to food safety as these harmful chemicals will affect the birds directly as well as indirectly. Increased fly populations may create a public health nuisance around the farm which may result in poor local community relations and threat of disease outbreaks. House flies transmits more than 100 human and animal disease causing organisms, including protozoa, bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, fungi, and worms. House flies are considered intermediate hosts for tapeworms and may transmit ascarids to caged birds. Flies mechanically carry ascarid and other nematode eggs on their feet from manure to pens, feed, and water. Fly maggots ingest tapeworm and ascarid eggs from the poultry manure and retain them in the gut until maturity. In turn, infected flies are ingested by the feeding bird. The chemicals like organophosphates, Organochlorines, pyrethrins etc. when are used by the farmers to control the fly menace at a farm it does provide them a temporary solution but in return what the farmer gets, he is unaware of. These chemicals are creating the development of resistance in these flies towards these chemicals due to which either they are to be used at higher dose or there should be a continuous rotation of the insecticide used to prevent the development of resistance. When these chemicals are used, especially in increased doses, the chances of their residual effect in the poultry products also increases. Since last few years the global discussion on resistance and residual effects of harmful chemicals in the food items is going on and the control measures to check this food safety challenge until now is at its poorest stage.

Factors attracting flies at a farm

Flies get attracted towards a farm by a number of factors which mainly include mainly the poultry manure and wet feed. The manure moisture and ammonia make the environment favourable for the flies to attack along with breeding and feeding at the farm. The management of manure at the farm is a crucial practice for preventing the fly menace. Some foul smelling matter present at or around the farm may also be the reason of high fly population in the farm. In such cases the problem need a much high level of attention so as to control the surrounding environment as well. Moist organic matter inside the farm also attracts the different types of fly population. The contaminated waterers and feeders can also become source for the flies in the farm.

Ammonia production and fly menace

Ammonia generation in poultry farms results from the breakdown of nitrogen containing compounds in the poultry litter and when this production is in excess the amount of ammonia produced is also higher and certainly the higher ammonia is produced as a result of improper protein metabolism or poor hepatic functions. The poor protein metabolism leads to many adverse effects on the body of the birds and therefore a prompt care is required to check proper liver functions. Flies are attracted to the smell of compounds containing Ammonia, Nitrogen, and Amines which are produced in the farm and the flies can smell it from distance.

Control of fly menace at a poultry farm Past / conventional approach:

In the past, fly control measures relied almost exclusively on harmful chemicals and pesticides to keep their populations below dangerous levels or nuisance thresholds. Since these thresholds are not well defined, control practices generally were carried out when the flies were observed in the poultry farms. To help prevent flies at a farm, very few farmers are also following integrated pest management (IPM) programs. IPM programs emphasize multiple control methods to prevent pests (which included flies as well), as opposed to a reliance on pesticides alone.

Extensive or improper use of pesticides results in the destruction of biological control agents and the development of pesticide resistance. It can also create harmful and illegal residues in meat and eggs, and can contaminate the environment. Destruction of biological control agents and pesticide resistance result in larger pest populations, increased pesticide use, and higher control costs. The major group of chemicals used are Organophosphates, Synthetic Pyrethroids, Substituted Melamine (Cyromazine), Botanical pyrethrins, Carbamates and Sodium Borate. These all are extremely harmful as far as food safety and resistance development is concerned.

Housefly Life Cycle

The housefly life cycle closely mirrors that of most insects: a basic cycle that begins with an egg, then develops through a larva phase, a pupa phase, and finally, into an adult. During a warm summer — optimal conditions for a housefly — the cycle, from fertilized egg to adult, spans a mere seven to 10 days.

After a male housefly chases down and fertilizes a female counterpart, she’s ready to lay her eggs. Houseflies are solitary creatures. Like the rest of the insect world, males and females do not stick together after mating and, unlike nesting insects, females do not care for or protect eggs. Females simply leave the eggs where they will be safe from predators and have plenty to eat upon hatching.

The female housefly deposits her eggs in the crevices and corners of the same kinds of decaying organic matter adults feed on. Within a day, the first larvae begin to emerge from the eggs. Also known as maggots, these worm-like creatures are little more than fleshy, sectionless tubes with hooked mouth parts used for feeding.

The maggots grow rapidly. In less than two days they’ve doubled in size and therefore must molt. Molting is a process common to many invertebrates through which a growing insect sheds its former exoskeleton and grows a new one. A maggot will molt twice more, emerging larger and more developed each time.

A Female Housefly Lainng Eggs

Following its third molt, larvae will burrow deep into the substance they’ve been feeding on. Their skins will darken and harden as they enter the pupa stage. Inside this protective shell, the larva will fully develop the body segments and appendages of an adult housefly.

The only visible addition to the emerging housefly is a swollen bump on the fly’s head, used to break through the shell. Since the housefly doesn’t have teeth or jaws to chew its way out, it uses this fluid-filled pouch to break through the pupae shell. Once fully emerged, the bump deflates back into the fly’s head.

A new adult housefly has, at most, three months to reproduce before it dies. With so many predators, a housefly’s average lifespan is even shorter: 21 days. Luckily for the housefly, the phrase “breeding like flies” isn’t just a figure of speech. Each female can lay up to 900 eggs during her brief life.

The very thought of a housefly infestation may prove too disturbing for many homeowners. However, the next page will describe how a manageable amount of houseflies helps regulate the local ecosystem.

Breeding Characteristics

The little house fly is smaller than the house fly, however, the size difference is difficult to distinguish. Breeding sites for the little house fly are drier than for the house fly and poultry manure is preferred over most other materials. This fly prefers shade and cooler temperatures and even circles aimlessly beneath hanging objects in the poultry house, egg room, and feed room. The little house fly is less likely to crawl on people and food than is the house fly. lt is, however, usually the fly that causes the most complaints from residents near the poultry farm. Large numbers of these flies may gather in garages, breezeways, and homes because of their preference for shade.

The house fly is known to breed in many types of organic material such as decaying plant material, spilled grain and feed, and in all kinds of animal manure. ln caged layer houses the manure is a very good location for breeding. In houses where sanitation is poor and where water spills keep the manure moist, fly breeding may especially be a problem. The house fly prefers sunlight and is a very active fly, which crawls over filth, people, and food. Because of these habits it is the most important species from the standpoint of spreading human and poultry diseases and fly-specking eggs.

Manure Management for Fly Control

Managing poultry manure in such a way that it becomes unattractive as a breeding site is an effective way to keep the fly population under control. All flies go through four life stages; egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Eggs are deposited on the breeding media (frequently poultry manure) and larva (or maggots) hatch out in the moist or wet material where they remain until ready to pupate. Pupation may occur in a drier location than where the eggs hatch. Fresh poultry manure is approximately 60 to 80% moisture. If the moisture level can be reduced to approximately 30% flies will no longer find it an ideal site for laying eggs. Another method of making manure unattractive to flies is to add water and make the manure liquid.

Dry Manure

Dry manure has several advantages in a management program. It is easier to handle, has less volume, and has less odor than liquid manure. There are three recommended methods of handling manure in a solid or dry form. The first involves a floor system with litter material used as a floor covering. For this system to work properly the litter must be kept dry and, therefore, flies are not usually a problem. A second method, used for caged layers, is frequent (usually weekly) cleaning of the house. By removing the fresh manure and spreading it on land it dries rapidly and tends to break the breeding cycle. Thorough cleaning of the building is important because any manure left in the building may still provide a fly breeding site.

Another method of handling manure in the dry form is in a deep storage area under cages. An advantage of this system is the flexibility of clean-out. Manure can remain in the storage area for a year or longer depending on the amount of storage available. Although flies can be a problem in any poultry house, they are not usually a problem with this type of manure system. Some reasons for this include: increased surface area for drying manure, dark storage area, which discourages any breeding, and natural fly predators live in the stored manure. Poultry manure that is allowed to accumulate undisturbed in a deep storage area undergoes some composting which reduces the volume of the waste. This volume reduction provides extra storage space and allows an extended storage period.

For all of these systems and particularly the frequent cleaning of a shallow pit and long-term storage to work efficiently there are several management practices that must be followed to reduce moisture in the manure. Probably the most important and perhaps the most difficult to control is preventing water leaks. In houses with cup waterers each valve has the potential for a leak. Providing adequate drainage to keep surface water out of the house is also essential. By maintaining the proper grade around the outside of the poultry house, storm water is prevented from getting into the house and getting the manure wet.

Another important management tool is proper ventilation. The proper exchange of air in the house with fresh air from outside will help move moisture laden air out of the house, which improves bird comfort, and will also help keep manure dry.

Other management practices which aid in keeping manure dry are:

keep watering systems clean and free of bacteria buildup which can cause diarrhea;
avoid rations that have a high salt content, which increase water consumption;
avoid very high house temperatures that increase water consumption.

Fly Control by Mechanical Measures

Fly control inside the poultry house is an easier problem to handle if flies are prevented from entering. Through the proper use of screens for doors, windows, and curtain openings the number of flies that enter the house can be minimized. Some of those flies that do enter the house can be controlled by electrical insect traps and bait stations. Traps are usually designed with some type of light to attract insects and then some type of electrically charged grid to kill them. These are best used as a supplement to other fly control practices. Bait stations are most effective in work areas where the surroundings are kept clean.

Fly Control by Chemical Measures

As a last alternative to good management and sanitation programs, insecticides can be used effectively to complete the task of fly control. It must be re-emphasized that insecticides should not be used instead of good management. In any situation where insecticides are used in or around the poultry farm only those products which are approved for poultry farm use should be considered and then only when the directions for use are carefully followed.

Several methods of application including residual sprays, space sprays, vapor strips, fly baits, and larvicides can be considered for poultry farm use. several insecticides that are approved for use in poultry houses and if used according to directions do not result in injury to the birds or residue contamination in eggs or meat.

Residual sprays may be used on the outside of the building, particularly around doors and windows including the vegetation growing in those areas, and on the inside on ceilings, trusses, electrical wires, light fixtures, or other equipment in the house. Some of the residual sprays can only be used when no birds are in the house, for use when birds are present. Control of flies for up to four weeks can be expected if surfaces are thoroughly coated to the point of dripping.

Bait stations can also help control the fly population on poultry farms. The bait stations usually contain an insecticide (such as those listed in Table 1) plus an attractant such as sugar. Hailing should be used in conjunction with another method of control; alone it is not eflective in controlling the population. Baits should always be placed out of reach of the birds.

Vapor strips can be effective in a fly control program. These strips are readily available and, when used according to label directions, give off a vapor which kills flies in a confined area. Use of these products in the poultry house is not recommended due to the large amount of air movement. Larvicides are another way of controlling flies. There are two types of larvicides that can be used. The most common type that has been used for some time is one that can be sprayed directly on manure. With this type of application the intent is to kill fly larvae (maggots) that are developing in the manure. To obtain desired results the insecticide must penetrate the manure and come in contact with the larvae. There is sometimes some difficulty in obtaining desired results because of the constant addition of fresh manure. This method of fly control should be reserved for treatment of trouble areas that have developed when other methods of control have failed. There are some additional potential problems associated with the application of larvicides to manure. One is the possible resistance development by flies. Another potential problem is the indiscriminate killing of natural parasites and predators.

What to Do about the Flies

Once you know which flies you are dealing with, what can you do about them?
Fly control can only be achieved by an integrated pest management approach. This essentially means doing a range of things rather than sticking to just one control method, which is seldom effective on its own.

Four basic principles apply:

It is impossible to eradicate all flies, so control practices are directed at reducing fly populations to tolerable levels.
There are many beneficial insects and mites that assist in fly control. The control provided by these is called natural, or biological control and is free! Good farm management will preserve these beneficial predators and parasites.
A good standard of farm management will reduce fly populations and the need to use insecticides. Good management includes general farm hygiene, maintaining healthy animals, trimming grass around sheds, cleaning up spilt feed around storage areas and animal sheds, reducing moisture in and around buildings by controlling water run-off, guttering, drains and maintaining leak-free stock watering systems.
Despite all management effort, under certain environmental circumstances fly numbers can increase considerably. This occurs most often in spring when false stable flies multiply but may also occur during warm, wet summers when the excess moisture prevents manure drying and favours rapid fly breeding. At these times insecticides may be needed to reduce the population of flies to tolerable levels.

Carcinops pumilio (Histeridae)

Biological Control: Bugs versus Flies

There are a range of bugs that do a great job on nailing fly eggs and larvae and can be a very effective part of an overall management strategy.

Predatory beetles

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Among the most common predators are the beetles Carcinops pumilio, Creophilus erythrocephalus and Alphitobius diaperinus. Carcinops adults and larvae are commonly seen in manure searching for fly eggs and larvae. Adult beetles will eat up to 24 fly eggs per day.
The Devil’s Coach horse (Creophilus) beetles are very active predators of fly maggots in intensive livestock facilities. They are also very commonly seen feeding on maggots in carrion.

Creophilus erythrocephalus

Predatory mites

These are ‘good mites’ and should not be mistaken for poultry red mites or northern fowl mites that are blood¬-sucking parasites of hens. The predatory mites are found in the manure and on adult flies. They are not insects but are beneficial organisms closely related to spiders that feed on fly eggs and very young fly maggots. Three families of these mites are represented in poultry sheds: Macrochelidae, Uropodidae and Parasitidae. As manure accumulates, parasitids are the first group to arrive, followed by macrochelids and finally uropodids. The macrochelids are often very abundant in poultry manure. The female mites attach to flies for transportation to new areas. Substantial reduction in fly numbers because of macrochelid mite predation has been demonstrated. Whereas the macrochelids are active on the manure surface, uropodid mites feed on larvae deep within accumulated manure.

Parasitic wasps

These are all tiny wasps belonging to the families, Pteromalidae or Chalcididae. One of the most commonly used of these wasps is Spalangia endius. Spalangia are tiny wasps (2 to 3mm long) that are naturalised to Australia.

Parasitic pteromalid wasps emerging from house fly puparia

They are parasites of certain fly species, including the house fly and stable fly. Spalangia are harmless to other insects and to all vertebrate animals including humans. Depending on species, female wasps deposit one or many eggs into pupae or full-size fly maggots. By their feeding the wasp larvae that hatch from the eggs destroy the developing fly and emerge from the fly puparia as adult wasps three weeks later. Parasitism rates as high as 40 per cent have been recorded. Under normal conditions, a balance is reached between flies and the predators and parasites that naturally regulate population size such that flies do not reach pest levels. For this reason, it is essential that the preservation of beneficial organisms be considered in farm management and especially when using insecticides. Increases in the populations of predators and parasites always lag behind those of the pest and are usually at a slower rate than those of the flies. Complete removal of accumulated manure can also remove many of the predators and parasites. If you remove manure from all rows, leave a pad of manure 2 to 3cm thick to help preserve the predatory beetles and mites and the parasitic wasps.

Use of Insecticides

There are dozens of chemical insecticides registered for use in and around sheds to control nuisance flies. These products can be segregated into different insecticide classes depending on the active ingredient they contain. They can also be segregated on the basis of how they are formulated. For example, there are wall sprays, fly baits, a feed additive and topical manure sprays. Each product has particular properties, which means that the effectiveness of each product will differ depending on the species of fly present, shed construction or the timing of the insecticidal application. For example, some fly bait products contain a pheromone that is only attractive to house flies. Smooth, impervious walls such as galvanised iron will retain a surface treatment well whereas insecticide sprays applied to concrete walls are much less effective. Depending on the product chosen, baits can be scattered on the ground or mixed with water and painted on surfaces, however, it is preferable to sprinkle baits onto damp hessian contained in dedicated bait trays that can be deployed where most effective. Total reliance on insecticides for fly control is unsustainable and has a number of disadvantages. Apart from the financial cost of the products, there are costs in terms of time and labour, occupational health and safety considerations and the capital investment and maintenance costs for spray equipment etc.

There are two major risks associated with excessive or inappropriate use of insecticides:

Insecticides also kill the beneficial insects and mites, particularly parasitic wasps. This reduces the effect of biological control and can create a persistent fly problem.
Insecticide resistant flies may eventually build up in the population.

Insecticide Resistance

When a new insecticide is first used against an insect pest such as the house fly, the population of the pest in the treated area is drastically reduced if the product has been applied correctly. However, a small proportion of individuals that have a greater ability to withstand the effects of the spray will survive. These insects may survive and breed, resulting in a rapid increase in fly numbers. Under this scenario many producers will apply multiple insecticide treatments. With each treatment, the proportion of survivors will increase until the insect population is largely unaffected by the insecticide. Research has shown that Australian house fly populations contain flies resistant to several insecticides, whereas false stable flies and lesser house flies are not yet resistant. This means that if the wrong insecticide is used resistant house flies are likely to survive a spray or bait treatment and continue to breed. Differences in susceptibility to the various registered insecticides among the common fly species means that control strategies should take account of the fly species targeted by selecting product(s) that are most likely to have maximal effect. To reduce the risk of resistance developing, it is wise to rotate the use of insecticides to minimise fly exposure to any single insecticide class. This can be achieved by alternating the use of products belonging to unrelated insecticide classes irrespective of whether a wall spray or a fly bait is chosen. Just remember to ensure that you are using the right mix of pesticides registered for use for the fly species you are trying to control. It is important to keep control over fly population which may irritate the farm animals and affect their performances. So here are few enlisted techniques which can be utilized to control or prevent flies on poultry farms

Fly Paper

This is the most conventional technique towards other fly control options. Fly paper do work effectively but it has disadvantage as the fly paper containing hundreds of victim flies stuck can be unsightly and unattractive. Therefore, it has to be regularly removed and replaced with new fly papers which can also be laborious task.

Fly Traps

The slight modified version of fly paper is the fly trap that is plastic containers with bait inside to lure flies. This is also equally effective, full traps can be ugly and smelly as well.

Misters

A modern method to keep flies at bay is to install portable fly-spray throughout the farms. The fly spray has an insecticide which can be sprayed every 15 minutes. They are relatively inexpensive and have been tested and proven safe for use near livestock and farm pets.

Predators

A very natural and eco friendly means to eliminate the types of flies is to use fly predators. Fly predators also known as parasitoids are very tiny and resemble ants with wings. Their sole purpose is to stop the reproductive cycle of flies. Although fly predators do not kill flies but it can be used in conjunction with insecticides to provide better results.

Feed Through System

A feed through system also known as insect growth regulator consumed by the animals. The active ingredient, cyromazine, disrupts the pupal stage of the fly life cycle and damages the nervous system of the fly larvae. Recently, a new method has been developed to apply pyriproxyfen (PPF) as insect growth regulator. This prevents the development of fly larvae into adult flies.

Polyherbal approach: a natural, safe and effective solution

Due to continuous development of resistance and food safety concerns it has become the need of hour to have a safe, sustainable, natural and effective solution to this problem of fly menace. It not only involves the control of flies but also its different stages along with the reduction of causes that leads to the production of ammonia in the farm so as to have a two directional check to ensure the control over the genesis of the fly menace. A farm owner is always concerned about better profit margins and is always focussing for adapting better managemental practices but the society as a whole is much concerned for the food safety and the prime responsibility lies on the shoulders of the persons engaged in poultry production as well as those involved in the meat and egg industry.

To control the fly population at a farm we can go for its polyherbal control by using some polyherbal solutions at the farm. A polyherbal solution is a natural and safe fly repellent containing herbs like Cedrus deodara, Eucalyptus globulus, Pongamia glabra etc. These herbal ingredients are well known as a fly repellent, insecticide & larvicidal activity for maintaining poultry farms free from flies and its different stages.

As the population of flies decreases in the farm the productivity of the bird’s increases as well as the birds are away from the nuisance created by these birds and the diseases which might have been there due to housefly transmission. The food safety is of utmost importance as far as human community is concerned and the decreased fly menace at a poultry farm will lead to decreased use of harmful chemicals. The control of the flies by natural products will prevent these chemicals to stay away from the poultry products used for human consumption.

Ntegrated Fly Management Programme or Ifmp

the professional & most effective way to control flies. It integrates all the methods of control – cultural, physical, biological and chemical. These methods have their own order of importance. The cultural methods involve sanitation & moisture management. Physical and mechanical methods make use of traps or physical poisons, while biological methods involve use of parasites & predators. Lastly, chemical methods use larvicides, baits, repellents and adulticides

Long term control over Fly Menace

In order to gain long term control, it is desirable to use cultural and physical methods at initial stages, followed by biological methods. However, many farmers tend to use chemical methods in the beginning, thus aggravating fly menace. So, it is desirable to use cultural, physical, mechanical, biological and chemicals methods of control according to their order of preference as shown in the fly management pyramid.

Among cultural control methods, moisture control is of prime importance.

Mechanical and physical control methods involve collecting of eggs, pupae, incinerating with flame throwers, use of UV traps, pheromone traps, spraying diesel or turpentine on litter or applying limestone powder on the litter.

Though important, biological control methods are not used in India.

Chemical control method is most frequently used by Indian poultry farmers, the reason being rapid control over a short period of time. However, repeated use of this method creates great menace.

This is exactly where the Integrated Fly Management Programme or IFMP comes in as an effective and long lasting tool in the hands of the poultry farmer.

IFMP approaches the problem of flies with a holistic approach and offers a sustainable solution that continues to be effective year after year…
IFMP is a combination of preventive and curative measures taken in right proportion. This is very important since indiscriminate use of harmful insecticide cannot be a solution for containing flies.

The most important preventive measure lies in keeping the farm neat and clean it is essential to check for leakages and repair the same at regular intervals..
The most important preventive measure lies in keeping the farm neat and clean it is essential to check for leakages and repair the same at regular intervals.