Immunization Strategies against HS, FMD, Brucellosis and Theileriosis in Dairy Animals
Dairy farming plays a vital role in ensuring a sustainable and efficient food supply. However, the health of dairy animals is constantly threatened by infectious diseases such as Hemorrhagic Septicemia (HS), Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD), Brucellosis, and Theileriosis. Implementing effective immunization strategies is essential to safeguard the health and productivity of dairy herds. This guide explores immunization protocols for each of these diseases, emphasizing a holistic and preventive approach.
Immunization strategy is one of the most important part of comprehensive disease control programme. Quality veterinary vaccines used strategically can improve the health and welfare of companion animals, increase production of livestock in a cost-effective manner and present animal to human transmission from both domestic animal and wildlife. It has impact on human health through increasing safe food supplies. Vaccination has been proven to be a very effective way of controlling and eliminating the most important, infectious diseases like HS, FMD, Brucellosis and Theileriosis which have high economic significance in livestock industry. Large scale immunization of all the susceptible livestock proper time using a potent vaccine is essential in achieving effective disease control. Application of biotechnological tools like recombinant – DNA, hybridoma technology etc for novel vaccine needs to be adopted.
Hemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS):
HS is an acute septicaemic disease occurring most often in cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and pigs following some form of stress caused by bacteria Pasturella multocida. It causes heavy death losses. Particularly when the animal is exposed to wet, chilly weather or exhausted by heavy work. Animals of all ages are susceptible but the most susceptible age group is 6 months to 2 years of age. Outbreak of the disease most often associated with wet humid weather during the rainy season. The organism may be present in respiratory tract as commensal and may not be able to produce the disease alone, but the predisposing factors like humid atmosphere, transportation, over excretion, starvation, close confinement, worm infestation especially in monsoon season make favourable environment for the multiplication of organisms to assume virulent role and set up the disease process. The maximum incidences are observed in monsoon. Hence vaccination programme for HS must be carried out a month before the monsoon starts.
Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD):
It is an old disease that have frightened the farming community since the 1500s.It is caused by a virus that exist in a 7 different forms called serotypes. Four serotypes O,A,C and Asia I are reported in India with no report of serotype C since 1995.All cloven hoofed animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep ,goat ,pig and other ruminants are prone to the infection. The wide host range and rapid spread of the disease represent the cause for its international concerns because of its rapid spread sometime FMD is elaborated as “Fast Moving Disease”. Different animal species react to a FMD in different ways. Sheep and goats are considered maintenance hosts in that they have mild clinical signs. Pigs are amplifying hosts in that they concentrate the virus in their respiratory secretions are much more infective via aerosol. Cattle are indicator hosts because they most often are the first spp. to show clinical signs with more several lesions. Animals with FMD usually recover uneventfully, but the highly infectious nature of the virus has profound economic consequences. Part of the economic impact stems from production losses in intensive production systems, such as dairy industry, where cattle may experience chronic mastitis, poor growth and permanent hoof damage. Even one case of FMD in nation is enough for other countries to close their borders to animals or animal products from the infected nation. The cost of an outbreak can run into billions of dollars for govt., besides the cost to farmers and rural business that suffers economic losses. The economic losses are mainly in form of loss in milk production, reduction in working ability of draught animals and reduction in body weight, leads to reduce in milk yield. In addition, the hide is not accepted by the countries which are free from the disease. In the endemic countries, eradication does not seem possible within the foreseeable future and countries free of the disease may require regional vaccination during outbreaks. Serviceable immunity after a single vaccination can be relied on for only 6-8 months. Vaccines produced from ‘natural’ virus give longer immunity than those produced from ‘culture’ virus. A general vaccination programme for an area must be planned for that area. Calves from unvaccinated dams should be vaccinated at 4 months and revaccinated at 8 months of age, but calves from vaccinated cows should be vaccinated twice, the first at 6 months and the second at 10 months of age. The important considerations in calves are to avoid vaccination while the calf is still carrying maternal antibodies derived from colostrum and to avoid infection.
Brucellosis:
It is an acute and chronic contagious disease of domestic animals caused by Brucella spp.and causes plecentitis and abortion. It is widely prevalent throughout the country among bovine population. It causes huge economic losses to livestock industries through abortion, delayed conception, temporary or permanent infertility. The disease in cattle, water and buffalo, is caused almost exclusively by Brucella abortus and occasionally by B.suis or B.melitensis. Infection spread rapidly and causes abortion in unvaccinated cattle herd. In a herd in which disease is endemic, an infected cow typically aborts only once after exposure; subsequent gestations and lactation appears normal. Transmission occurs by ingestion of contaminated feed and water with aborted fetuses, fetal membranes and uterine discharge. Venereal transmission by infected bulls to susceptible cows appears to be rare. Transmission may occur by AI when Brucella contaminated semen is deposited in the uterus. Brucellae may enter the body through mucus membrane, conjunctivae, wounds or intact skin. Abortion in last trimester of pregnancy is the most obvious manifestation. Infection may also cause still born or weak calves, retained placentas, and reduced milk yield. Organisms are localized in the supra mammary, iliac and retro pharyngeal LN. Animal may develop hygroma. Usually general health is not impaired in uncomplicated abortions. In bulls, seminal vesicles, ampullae, testicles and epididymides may be infected leading to epididymitis and orchitis; there for organisms are present in the semen. A number of vaccines are in use but none is fully effective. In some countries vaccination is not permitted and eradication by test and slaughter is the only method of control. B. abortus strain 19 gives a high -level, durable immunity but the vaccine has several disadvantages. Vaccinated animals become seropositive, which hinders subsequent use of serological tests for eradication. Strain 19 itself can cause epididymitis and vaccinated rams may excrete strain 19 in their semen. Severe outbreaks of osteomyelitis and epiphysitis have been recorded in rams following vaccination. Vaccination is carried out once in life of female calf of 4-8 months of age.
Theilerioses:
Theileriosis is a major tick borne haemoprotozoan disease of cattle, sheep, goat and wild and captive ungulates. Crossbreds and exotic cattle are highly susceptible to the disease. Theileriosis in Indian bovines is mainly caused by Theileria annulata and commonly known as bovine tropical theileriosis. Highest incidence of theileriosis is observed in calves in winter (Oct-Jan) followed by monsoon (June-Sept) and least in summer season (Feb-May). The prevalence of theileriosis varies from region to region, host to host and also depends on management and environmental factors. The common clinical signs in affected crossbred animals are rise in body temperature, enlargement of superficial lymph node, lethargy, tachycardia, polypnoea , reduced appetite, pale to icteric mucous membrane with protrusion of eye ball in a few cases and bulging of supra orbital fossa. Effective drugs used worldwide for the treatment of tropical theileriosis include mainly buparvaquone, oxytetracycline, diminazine aceturate and halofuginone. Among many drugs buparvaquone, second-generation hydroxynaphthoquinone is very effective and highly specific for the treatment of clinical cases of bovine tropical theileriosis. Buparvaquone is 93-100% effective in treatment. Control of theileriosis can be done by three ways, viz., chemoprophylaxis, immunoprophylaxis and tick control. In chemoprophylaxis buparvaquone is currently the drug of choice given at the dose rate of 2.5 mg/kg, intramuscularly at the age of 30 days. For immunoprophylaxis, Rakshavac-T vaccine is used for susceptible cattle under field condition. Control of ticks can be done by three methods, viz., physical methods, use of chemical agents and by use of biopesticide. It causes great economic loss. Indigenous cattle live with the disease and do not require any intensive tick control or treatment. For valuable exotic stock or their crossbreeds, vaccination and strategic tick control are recommended. It has been suggested that the most economical way to control theileriosis in India is to vaccinate calves and to reserve buparvaquone for treating clinical cases.
Vaccination for dairy animals
| Sl. No | Name of Disease | Age at first dose | Booster dose | Subsequent dose |
| 1 | Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) |
4 months and above | 1 month after first dose | Six monthly |
| 2 | Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS) |
6 months and above | – | Annually in endemic areas. |
| 3 | Black Quarter (BQ) | 6 months and above | – | Annually in endemic areas. |
| 4 | Brucellosis | 4-8 months of age (Only female calves) |
– | Once in a lifetime |
| 5 | Theileriosis | 3 months of age and above | – | Once in a lifetime. Only required for crossbred and exotic cattle. |
| 6 | Anthrax | 4 months and above | – | Annually in endemic areas. |
| 7 | IBR | 3 months and above | 1 month after first dose | Six monthly (vaccine presently not produced in India) |
| 8 | Rabies (Post bite therapy only) | Immediately after suspected bite. | 4th day | 7,14,28 and 90 (optional) days after first dose. |
Source : NDDB Handbook of Good Dairy Husbandry Practices
Vaccination schedule for buffaloes
| Infection | Manufacturer | Ingredients/adjuvant | Dose | Primary | Booster | Revaccination | |||
| FMD | |||||||||
| Bovilis®Clovax | Intervet India | Binary ethyleneimine (BEI) inactivated FMD mineral oil emulsion vaccine containing a mixture of virus serotypes O, A and Asia-1 | 2ml, i/m
(Vial: 100 ml) |
3 months onwards | I After 4-6 weeks of primary vaccination
II After 24 weeks of first booster |
Every 44-48 weeks after 2nd booster vaccination | |||
| Raksha | Indian Immunologicals | Inactivated tissue culture FMD virus strains O, A and Asia-1 adsorbed on Al (OH)3 gel and saponin as an adjuvant | 3 ml in the mid-neck region, s/c
(Vial: 30 ml) |
4 months | 2-4 weeks after primary vaccination | Every 6 months after booster and every 4 months in endemic areas | |||
| Raksha Ovac | -do- | Inactivated tissue culture FMD virus strains O, A, and Asia-1 adjuvanted with mineral oil | 2 ml in the mid-neck region, deep i/m | 4 months | 9 months after primary vaccination | Annually | |||
| Haemorrhagic Septicemia (Galghotu/Ghurrka) | |||||||||
| Raksha HS | Indian Immunologicals | Formaldehyde inactivated culture of Pasteurella multocida adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide gel | 2 ml, mid-neck region, s/c
(Vial:100 ml) |
6 months and above | Annually and in adverse climatic conditions like unseasonal rains and cyclones, etc. | ||||
| Compound Vaccines of FMD/HS/BQ | |||||||||
| Raksha biovac
(FMD+HS) |
Indian Immunologicals | FMD inactivated antigens against O, A, and Asia-1 strains and formaldehyde inactivated Pasteurella multocida culture mixed together in light mineral oil emulsion | 3 ml, midneck, deep i/m
(Vial: 30 ml) |
4 months | 9 months | Annually | |||
| Raksha triovac
(FMD+HS+BQ) |
-do- | FMD inactivated antigens against O, A, Asia-1 and formaldehyde inactivated Pasteurella multocida culture, inactivated Clostridium chauvoei culture mixed together in light mineral oil emulsion | 3 ml, mid-neck, deep i/m
(Vial: 30 ml) |
4 months | 9 months | Annually | |||
| Raksha HS+BQ | -do- | Formaldehyde inactivated cultures of Pasteurella multocida and Clostridium chauvoei adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide gel | 3 ml, mid-neck region, s/c
(Vial: 90 ml) |
6 months and above | Annually and in adverse climatic conditions like unseasonal rains and cyclones, etc. | ||||
| Brucellosis | |||||||||
| Bruvax | Indian Immunologicals | Live Brucella abortus strain 19 freeze dried bacteria, each dose ≥ 40×109 organisms | 2 ml., s/c
(Vial: 5 dose freeze dried vaccine with 10 ml sterile diluent) |
4-8 months old serologically negative female calves | |||||
| Note:Only serologically negative female calves should be vaccinated with live B. abortus strain 19 while bulls and pregnant animals should not be vaccinated | |||||||||
| Depending upon prevalence in a given area, vaccination against following diseases may also be taken up Anthrax | |||||||||
| Raksha-Anthrax
(Prophylactic only) |
Indian Immunologicals | Suspension of live spores of attenuated non-capsulated strain of B. anthracis in 50% glycerinated saline, each dose ≥ 1×108 viable spores | 1 ml, i/m or s/c
(Vial: 50 ml) |
one month before grazing season or prior to the time the disease usually occurs | |||||
| Note: Protect animals from overexertion 3 days following vaccination. Do not vaccinate the animal 60 days before slaughter | |||||||||
| Sterne Vaccine | Institute of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Tamil Nadu | **Live spores of highly antigenic nonencapsulated avirulent Sterne strain (34 F2) of B. anthracis in glycerine saline | 1 ml, s/c | Approx. 4 weeks prior to the time the disease usually appears | Revaccinate after 2-3 weeks in heavily contaminated areas | annual vaccination in endemic areas | |||
| Note: Use boiled milk from lactating animals up to 1 month after vaccination, do not vaccinate within 42 days before slaughter, do not give antibiotics to animals being vaccinated; burn, autoclave or chemically disinfect container and all unused contents; adrenalin should be administered immediately if anaphylactoid reaction occurs, immunity 6m-1year | |||||||||
| Rabies | |||||||||
| Raksharab, Prophylactic | Indian Immunologicals | ***Tissue culture rabies virus, CVS strain adjuvanted with Al(OH)3 adjuvant, antigen potency >2.5 IU/ml | 1 ml by s/c or i/m route
(Vial: 1 ml, 5 ml, 10 ml) |
3 m and above | In case primary vaccination is given below 3 months of age, a booster dose should be given at 3 months age | 3 years, annual vaccination recommended in endemic areas | |||
| Post-exposure therapy (PET) | I-Day Zero of dog bite or within 24 hrs, II-Day 3, III-Day 7, IV-Day 14, V- Day 28 and VI-Day 90 | ||||||||
| Note: Vaccinate only healthy animals; malnutrition, helminth infestation, administration of immunosuppressive agents like corticosteroids, radiation therapy, etc. will suppress immune response to vaccine; generally no adverse reactions are noticed, occasionally a transient, palpable nodule may occur at the site of injection; in rare cases hypersensitivity may occur, immediate treatment with antihistaminics is advocated. | |||||||||
Points to be noted
- Animals should be in good health at the time of vaccination. Do not vaccinate animals which are already in stress (Like bad weather, Scarcity of fodder & water, Disease outbreaks, after transportation etc.)
- Try to deworm animals & remove ecto-parasites one to two weeks prior to vaccination.
- Strictly follow vaccination schedule after consultation with veterinary experts.
- Keep records of vaccination for name of vaccine manufacturing company, Batch number, Expiry date, Dose & route of vaccine.
- Maintain cold chain for vaccines which may have to keep for 2-8 degree Celsius temperature.
- Create stress free environment for animals after vaccination.
The implementation of comprehensive immunization strategies is crucial for ensuring the health and productivity of dairy herds. By integrating vaccination protocols for HS, FMD, Brucellosis, and Theileriosis with robust biosecurity measures, testing, and collaborative efforts, dairy farmers can create a resilient and disease-resistant environment. These strategies not only protect individual animals but also contribute to the sustainability and profitability of the dairy industry as a whole.
Compiled & Shared by- This paper is a compilation of groupwork provided by the
Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)
Image-Courtesy-Google
Reference-On Request.
