Importance of Minerals in Animal Feeding
Danveer Singh1, *Manju 1, Sheela Choudhary 1 and Monika Karnani1 1Department of Animal Nutrition, PGIVER, Jaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA 302031 *dr.manju20@gmail.com
Introduction:
Minerals are inorganic elements found in small amounts in all body tissues and fluids but not all elements are minerals e.g. (C, H, O, N).About 3% of the animal body consists of minerals.Acid soluble fraction of the total ash is the mineral.The importance of minerals to the health and well-being of animals has been recognized for centuries, although individual mineral involvement was unknown. Common salt was recognized in Biblical times as a value substance which was sought readily for consumption by both humans and animals. However, until the late 1800’s or early 1900’s that significant progress began to occur in identifying minerals essential for animal life.Fortunately, several long-continued critical mineral feeding experiments with dairy cows have been performed in last 15 years. They have focused on the elements Ca and P mainly that make up larger portion of the mineral composition of cow and cow’s milk.
Apart from energy and protein, minerals play an important role in the metabolic functions of livestock and poultry. These functions support growth, development, production, immune function and reproductive performance. They are also essential for the support of several enzymatic systems. A borderline deficiency of a mineral needs to be supplemented to support the homeostatic state of the animal during all phases of life. Bioavailability plays an essential role in mineral significance. Bioavailability refers to the ability of a specific mineral source to supply the mineral for the body function. Certain mineral sources like mineral salts preferred over others due to the increased bioavailability, even though the total mineral content may below.
General functions of Minerals:
These are Protective function, Structural function, Regulatory function, General metabolic function.
| Milk production | Ca, P |
| Immune System | Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr, Fe, Se |
| Energy Metabolism | Mg, P, Mn |
| Hormone system | Mn, Zn, Mg, Fe, K |
| Vitamin synthesis | Co, S |
| RBC synthesis | Fe, Cu |
| Co-factor of Enzymes | Zn, Cu, Mn, K, Mg, Ca, Mo |
| Skeletal system | Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, P |
Classification of Minerals:
The minerals are classified in 2 categories based on concentration in the body and amount required in the diet of animals:
- Macro/Major minerals:These are required in diet >100mg/kg feed. Their concentration isexpressed in percentage (%).e.g. Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, and S.
- Micro/minor/trace minerals:These are required in the diet <100 mg/kg feed.Their concentration is expressed in ppm.e.g. Fe, Cu, Co, Mn, I, Zn, Mo, Se, F, Cr, B, Li, Ni, Si, Sn and V.
Importance and Deficiency Symptoms of Macro Minerals:
- Calcium
It helps in muscle contraction, myocardial and neuromuscular excitability, activation of various enzymes like lipase, succinic dehydrogenase, adenosine triphosphatase and secretion of several hormones.Ca: P in bones and teeth is (2:1), so required for growing, pregnant, milch animals.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- In young animals: Rickets/Rachitic Rosary (Poor bone development, effortlessly bending and misshapen bones)
- In adults: Osteomalacia (general softening of the bone)
- Osteoporosis (bone reabsorption is more than bone formation)
- Milk fever (parturient paresis, Ca tetany) in high yielders
- Thin and fragile eggshell, curled legs in birds
- Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (NSH)/ Osteodystrophy fibrosa and significant head disease in a horse
- Phosphorus
It occurs as phosphoprotein, nucleoprotein, phospholipids, phosphocreatine and hexose phosphate and help in the energy metabolism of sugar like ADP and ATP.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Pica (depraved appetite) – Eating of bones, wood, clothing, soil, plastic, etc. by animal.
- Reduced fertility and delayed conception
- Magnesium
It is essential for bones and teeth, the activator of several enzymes transferring phosphate from ADP to ATP, Cofactor for decarboxylation peptidases, alkaline and acid phosphatases.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Ca deposition in the kidney (renal calculi)
- Panting and gasping in chicks
- Grass Tetany/Grass Staggers (In calves for long periods on milk alone called as Milk Tetany and in cows fed on lush green pasture called as Wheat Pasture Tetany) and Lactation Tetany (usually accompanied with hypocalcaemia)
Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine
They all maintain osmotic pressure and acid-base balance to regulate the passage of nutrients through cell walls and help in water metabolism. The ration of herbivores is always supplemented with ‘Common salt’ at a rate of 1% of the concentrate mixture.
Deficiency Symptoms– Lack of appetite, a decline in growth, loss of weight and production, decreased blood levels
- Sodium
It occurs in ECF, also in muscles in considerable amounts for their contraction.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Slow growth, bone softening, keratinization of corneal epithelium, impotency in males, impaired oestrus rhythm in females., Cardiac output decreases, blood drops, and PCV in-creases
- In laying hens, lowered production, weight loss, and cannibalism seen.
- Potassium
It occurs in ICF, also plays a vital role in muscle contraction, nervous transmission. (K: Na in muscles = 6:1). Na and K are interrelated in metabolism (K gets effux from the cells whereas Na gets influx inside the cells).
Deficiency Symptoms– General weakness and leading to hypo Mg-tetany, decreased use of hay and increased use of grain may result.
- Chlorine
It is major anion found in ECF regulates pH and osmolarity by a mechanism called ’Chloride Shift and commonly found in skin, s/c tissue and gastric juice, help in digestion as salt.
Deficiency Symptom– Alkalosis (excess bicarbonates).
- Sulphur
It is present in amino acid (cysteine and methionine) and vitamins (thiamine and biotin); Glutathione and insulin and in the inorganic form in chondroitin sulphate of cartilage. Wool has 4% of Sulphur. N: S in ruminant diets should be approximately 10:1 to 15:1.
Deficiency Symptoms– Reduced feed intake and cellular digestion, protein malnutrition, poor quality of wool in sheep.
Importance and Deficiency Symptoms of Micro Minerals:
- Iron
It is constituent of blood pigments (Hb, myoglobin), enzymes (cytochrome C, peroxidase, catalase) and muscle protein. It occurs in blood serum as a protein called transferrin (siderophilin) helping in iron transport.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Nutritional anaemia (Hypochromic, microcytic anaemia in pigs, chickens and normochromic, microcytic anaemia in calves).
- Depigmentation of feathers (achromotrichia) in chicken and Cotton fur in mink.
- Piglet anaemia characterized by laboured spasmodic breathing (Thumps) during suckling milk (within 2-4 weeks of birth) because milk is a poor source of Fe.
- Copper
It helps in Hb formation along with Fe (1928 Hart his associates of USA), occurs as haemocuprein in blood cells.It is needed for osteoblastic activity, bone formation and healthy collagen, elastin formation.It isan integral part of many metalloenzymes like cytochrome C oxidase, Uri case, tyrosinase, lysyl oxidase, benzylamine oxidase, diamine oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, etc.It occurs in respiratory pigments as well as hair and feather pigments like Hemocyanin of marine organisms and Turacin (a feather pigment from the turaco bird). Milk is deficient in copper just like iron.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Microcytic, hypochromic anaemia in pigs and chickens and microcytic, normochromic anaemia in calves (same as Fe deficiency).
- Depigmentation of colored hair and black wool due to a defect in melanin synthesis due to reduced tyrosinase activity.
- Decreased wool growth called as Stringy or Steely wool characterized by limp (not stiff or firm), glossy fibres lacking the normal crimp (Falling disease).
- Falling disease (sudden death without signs, fibrosis of myocardium).
- Enzootic ataxia (in Australia).
- Swayback (in England) in lambs, kids, and calves- a stiff and staggering gate with a swaying of hindquarters.
- Coast disease (Neck ill, Lickin disease).
- Teartness/Peat scours in England, New Zealand (in Cu deficiency and Mo toxicity).
- Lechsucht: Wasting disease of cattle and sheep in northern Europe (Cu pine).
- Dissecting aneurysm of the aorta in chickens in the absence of amine oxidase, impaired reproduction.
- Cobalt
Rumen microorganisms synthesize Vit. B12 utilizing the Co ingested indeed and help in DNA synthesis and amino acid metabolism.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Wastingdisease/ Enzooticmarasmus/Pine/Vanquish/Coast disease (1935 by Filmer Underwood Marston Lines inAustralia).
- Retarded wool growth and weak fibres.
- Sheep are more susceptible to Cu toxicity and Co deficiency than any other farm animal.
- Iodine
1/2 to 2/3 of total Iodine is found in the thyroid gland (0.1 % on DMB), helps to control BMR through the output of thyroxine hormone. Iodine in thyroid gland exists as inorganic iodide, mono diiodotyrosine, triiodothyronine, thyroxine, thyroglobulin.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Simple goitre, big neck, hairless thick pulpy skin in cows and pigs, hairless pups
- Moulting process and pigmentation of feathers is affected in birds
Decrease quality of fleece, Infertility problems like the decline in libido in sheep
- Manganese
It activates many enzymes- arginase, thiaminase, cystine desulfhydrase and involves in oxidative phosphorylation, synthesis of chondroitin sulphate of cartilages and bones, needed in glucosyltransferase activity for the formation of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Bone abnormalities in cattle
- Pigs: Slow skeletal growth, irregular oestrus cycle, reabsorption of foetus or birth of small weak piglets, poor udder development and the inability of milk production, crooked legs and enlarges hocks
- Poultry: Perosis or Slipped Tendon in growing chicks (Achilles tendon slips from its condyle), shortening of leg bones, chondrodystrophy in the embryo of hens and ataxia characterized by a star-gazing position in newly hatched chick, parrot beak in embryo chicks
- High levels of Ca and P in diet interfere with Mn absorption and higher Mn interfere with iron absorption
- Zinc
It is present in many enzymes- Carbonic anhydrase in RBC, Alkaline phosphatase; also plays a role in keratinization and calcification. It is found in epidermal tissues- skin, hair wool and a little bit in bones, muscles, blood, and organs.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Parakeratosis in pigs (skin gives the appearance of severe ’mange’) and Hyperkeratosis in cows.
- Shortening thickening of long bones and poor feathering in chicks (Frizzled feather).
- Swollen Hock Syndrome.
- Fluorine
It is an integral part of bones and teeth and helps for the prevention of dental caries.
Toxicity Symptoms– F toxicity is called fluorosis (>1 ppm F in drinking water). Bones and teeth give yellow colour, exostosis from long jawbones, mottling of teeth occur.
- Molybdenum
It is constituent of several enzymes like xanthine oxidase/dehydrogenase (XDH), a matello-flavoprotein plays a role in purine metabolism and important to poultry for uric acid production; act as co-factor for aldehyde oxidase (AO) and sulphite oxidase (SOX).
- Selenium
It is component of glutathione peroxidase enzyme (1973) also acts like an antioxidant as Vit. E.
Deficiency Symptoms-
- Liver necrosis in rats and pigs, exudative diathesis (a haemorrhagic disease) in chickens.
- Gizzard myopathy in turkeys.
- White muscle disease (muscular dystrophy) in lambs and calves.
- Mulberry heart disease in pigs.
- Tying up in horses.
- Decreased reproductive effciency in sheep and retention of the placenta (ROP) in dairy. cattle, reduced hatchability, and egg production in hens.
- Chromium
It is a primary component of Glucose Tolerance Factor (GTF) and Essential for muscle growth in pigs, larger litters in sows, also maintain the configuration of the RNA molecule. It reduces stress in cattle, improves immune status and milk yield; improves insulin or insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) sensitivity for target tissues; also reduces the incidence of metabolic disorders like milk fever in early lactation.
- Boron
It regulates PTH action and influences Ca, P, Mg cholecalciferol (Vit. D) metabolism.
- Lithium
It is effective in the recovery of bovine spastic paresis (BSP), a disease of CNS; also used in the therapy of maniac depressive psychosis.
- Nickel
It is essential for urease activity of rumen microbes; also present in RNA.
Deficiency Symptoms-Impaired liver metabolism in chicks, dermatitis, change in pigmentation of shank skin.
- Tin
It increases average daily weight of rats (2ppm Sn) and act as an oxidation-reduction catalyst and active sites of metalloenzymes.
- Vanadium
It decreases the incidence of dental caries in pigs, rats and has a role in the regulation of Na-K-ATPase, phosphoryl transferase, adenylate cyclase and protein kinase (Nielsen, 1990).
Deficiency Symptoms-Loss of weight feathers, impaired reproduction, altered RBC iron metabolism, impairment of bone tissue metabolism and altered blood lipid levels.
- Silicon
It is essential for normal calcification of chick bone (Carlisle, 1970) and has a role in mucopolysaccharide synthesis and functions as biological crosslinking agent contributing to the structural integrity of connective tissue.
Deficiency Symptoms-decreased growth in rats chicks, impaired incisor pigmentation in rats, no wattles with small combs in chicks.
Mineral Requirement and Maximum Tolerance levels:
Table 1. Macro Mineral Requirements and Max Tolerable Levels (in %) for Cattle (NRC)
Table 2. Micro Mineral Requirements and Max Tolerable Levels (in ppm) for Cattle (NRC)
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Study conducted on Minerals in Rajasthan:
A study was conducted in Bharatpur, Rajasthan by M.R. Garg*, B.M. Bhanderi, and P.L. Sherasia (NDDB, Gujrat). The study indicated the following:
- Ca was low in concentrates (0.14%) except mustard cake (0 .74%)
- Ca was higher in straws (0.34%) in compare to P (0.10%)
- P was higher in concentrates (0.45%) as com-pare to roughages
- Ca and P content in green berseem were 1.33 and 0.31% respectively
- Mg in feedstuffs was inadequate (0.38%)
- Na was low in dry roughages (0 .14%) and concentrates (0.064%)
- K was rich in the feed (1.55%)
- S was low in crop residues (0.13%), better in concentrates (0.18%)
- Fe and Mn were adequate in the diet with traditional feeding system
- Cu was low in straws (5.40 ppm), moderate in green fodders (9.68 ppm) and concentrated ingredients (9.87 ppm)
- Co was deficient in the animal diet
- Zn was acutely low (average level< 26.30 ppm)
- Mo level was (< 1.25 ppm) within the safe limit
- Se was adequate (0.61 ppm)
Thus it was concluded from the study that the feeds and fodders available in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) might not meet the requirements for Ca, P, Na, S, Zn, Cu, Co to sustain a milk production of 8 kg/day in buffalo. A study in Bikaner (Rajasthan) also indicated similar results.
Conclusion:
There is no doubt that minerals play an important role in growth, production and reproduction of the animals. The earlier information of these minerals was based on analysis using less-sensitive methods, which may not be reliable. Further research is required to find out the minimum dietary level of mineral requirements, maximum tolerable levels, and the interrelationship between the minerals. There is also the need to evaluate the effects of different processing methods on the minerals content of water and plant foods. This will go in a long way in reducing the problem of malnutrition caused by the inadequate food supply, consumption of unbalanced diets and inadequate nutritional education.
Supplementation of minerals in organic livestock is most commonly occur through the purchased concentrate feed, mineral premixes, freeaccess mineral blocks, or rumen boluses (ruminants); there is also some use of trace elementinjections. Area specific chelated mineral mixture (Organic mineral supplements) should be used, which improves serumand tissue levels of micronutrients compared toinorganic sources by better absorption of otherminerals and by providing higher bioavailabilityof minerals. E.g., chelated Zn, Cu proteinate, Naselenite.It is suggested that minerals can be supplemented in combination of inorganic and organic sources at two-third (Livestock) and one-third (Poultry) levels of requirements, to obtain the maximum performance.
References:
- Minerals by Dr. Rick Machen, Texas Agricultural ExtensionService, Uvalde http://animalscience.tamu.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2012/04/nutrition-minerals.pdf
- Assessment of Macro and Micro Minerals Status of Milch Animals for Developing Area Specific Mineral Mixture for Bharatpur District of Rajasthan M.R. Garg, B.M. Bhanderi and P.L. Sherasia Productivity Systems, Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology Laboratory, NDDB, Anand(2006) https://www.dairyknowledge.in/sites/default/files/mineral_nutrition_sl_no_19_an_group.pdf
- https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/vq27zn830
- Marta López-Alonso, Trace Minerals and Livestock: Not Too Much Not Too Littlehttps://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2012/704825/
- https://www.allaboutfeed.net/Feed-Additives/Articles/2018/3/Vitamins-and-minerals-Essential-for-ruminants-256655E/
- Lawton Stewart, Animal & Dairy Science https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B895&title=Mineral%20Supplements%20for%20Beef%20Cattle
- Sanjib Borah and Babul Chandra Sarmah (Department of Veterinary Physiology College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University), Micronutrient in Sustainable Animal Production https://en.engormix.com/dairy-cattle/articles/micronutrient-sustainable-animal-production-t35722.htm
