INNOVATION IN POULTRY NUTRITION THROUGH SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVES TO ANTIBIOTIC GROWTH PROMOTORS

INNOVATION IN POULTRY NUTRITION THROUGH SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVES TO ANTIBIOTIC GROWTH PROMOTORS

Dr. SHARDHANJLI BEHERA^1* :B.V.Sc & A.H

Dr. GAUTHAM KOLLURI² : SCIENTIST,ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute

Dr. ABHISEK MISHRA³ :M.V.Sc SCHOLAR,DIVISION OF MEDICINE

INDIAN VETERINARY RESEARCH INSTITUTE ,ICAR-IVRI DEEMED UNIVERSITY, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122

^*Corresponding author’s email: beherashardhanjli@gmail.coms

Abstract

As the world’s population grows, so does the demand for food. In the meantime, the poultry sector is expanding. Because poultry’s meat and eggs are high in protein and other vital nutrients that meet the body’s nutritional needs, the industry is greatly closing the nutritional gap. Compared to other animal meat sources, poultry meat is less expensive. Over the past few decades, the poultry business has experienced substantial growth. Antibiotic use in the poultry business is a result of the oversupply of demand for layers and broiler production. the irrational use of antibiotics to reduce production costs and increase profits. Antibiotic resistance may develop as a result of residues from the careless and excessive use of poultry products. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that antibiotics given to livestock and poultry are typically eliminated without metabolism and are not well absorbed through the digestive tract. Eventually, these expelled antibiotics build up in the environment and make their way into the human food chain, which causes the drug residues to bio accumulate in the body. However, worries about antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations, antibiotic residues in poultry products, and rising consumer demand for antibiotic residue-free products have sped up the search for alternatives that could replace antibiotics without compromising productivity or product quality. Organic acids, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, phytobiotics, spirulina, and vitamins are substitutes for poultry. Prebiotic organisms stimulate the immune systems, decrease the diversion of nutrients for harmful microbes and the toxins they produce, and compete with pathogenic organisms for intestinal colonizing sites. A similar alternative is provided by prebiotics, which change the immune system and intestinal microbes to lessen pathogen colonization and promote the growth of good microflora in the gut. The best way to improve poultry production is even to use synbiotics Proteins found in spirulina are used to improve nutrition. Vitamins help birds stay healthier.

Key words : Antibiotic,growth promotors,probiotics,prebiotics,synbiotics

 Introduction

There are about 28–30 billion chickens in the world. There are roughly 25 billion broilers and 5–6 billion layers. In India, 4.995 million tonnes of meat are produced from poultry, accounting for roughly 51.14 % of all meat production. Compared to the previous year, the production of poultry meat has increased by 4.52% (source: FAO, 2021-22). The goal of poultry nutrition has been to boost production efficiency in order to match the advancements made in broiler and layer genetic potential. Poultry nutrition in the future will be influenced by environmental concerns, antibiotic growth promoters, welfare, and other factors in addition to maximizing the birds’ biological and economic development (Henchion et al., 2017). Crude protein, crude fiber , ether extract, salt, linoleic acids, calcium, and phosphorus are necessary for layers and broilers’ diets, along with a few additives like antioxidants like BHT (Butylated hydroxytoluene), BHA (Butylated hydroxinisole), santoquin, ethoxiquin, antibiotics like penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, lincosamides, and macrolides. Probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, herbal extracts, organic acids, enzymes, essential amino acids, and other feed additives have all been used extensively.

Adverse effect of antibiotic growth promoters

Antibiotics are widely used in poultry agriculture worldwide because they are affordable and readily available (Helm,et al., 2019). By improving gut health and reducing subclinical infection rates—both of which promote growth, productivity, and feed conversion efficiency—it has fundamentally altered intensive chicken farming (Hou, L.et al 2022.;). By reducing the pathogen load and preventing sub-clinical infections, which are often persistent in birds even in well-managed poultry units, low concentrations of antibiotics enhance gut health (Rathnayaka,et al.,2021 ) Food animals, including poultry, can receive antibiotics through a variety of methods, such as injections, oral administration in feed, and water. Growth promoters include the antibiotic class aminoglycosides, lincosamides, macrolides, streptogramins, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines. Antibiotics most likely work by interacting with the microbiota in the gut because some antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) are not absorbed. The use of AGPs has been linked to a reduction in opportunistic pathogens through competitive exclusion and thinning of the intestinal wall villi and the entire gut wall. The use of growth-promoting antibiotics is now seen negatively by consumers due to resistance and residue issues. Through competitive exclusion and thinning of the intestinal wall villi and the entire gut wall, the use of AGPs has been associated with a decrease in opportunistic pathogens. Because of resistance and residue problems, consumers now view the use of growth-promoting antibiotics negatively. Of the 58 isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg tested in one study on antibiotic resistance, 72% were resistant to at least one antibiotic, and 24% were resistant to eight or more antimicrobials (Hoffman-Pennesi and Wu, 2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) declared antibiotic resistance to be a worldwide public health issue in 1997. Despite the many advantages, the use of antibiotics in poultry is being questioned because of the rise in antibiotic resistance. When an antibiotic is administered to food animals at a sub therapeutic level, the sensitive population of bacteria is eradicated, leaving the variants with peculiar characteristics that resist the effect. This is the mechanism by which resistance develops in the antibacterial population. After that, these resistant bacteria proliferate and take over. By mutation or plasmid-mediated transmission, the resulting resistant population passes on the genetically defined resistance to its offspring as well as to other bacterial strains. Consuming and handling meat tainted with these pathogens can expose humans to a population of resistant bacteria. It is more challenging to treat bacterial infections when these resistant bacteria are acquired because they can colonize the human intestinal tract and transfer their antibiotic-resistant genes to other bacteria in the body’s endogenous microbiota. Due to drug resistance associated with the use of antibiotics in poultry production, there has been a significant push to find alternative treatments. Reducing the use of antibiotics in poultry can be achieved by using whole grain cereals, fermentable sugars, live microbial cultures, and feed processing/sterilization. Notable alternatives in poultry production include organic acids, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, herbal remedies, vitamins, and minerals.

Sustainable alternatives

• Organic acids

The pH at which an organic acid is half dissociated, or its pKa value, is typically between 3 and 5 for most organic acids with antimicrobial activity (Hinton et al 1998,). Generally speaking, organic acids are weak acids with only partial dissociation. Furthermore, organic acids exist as sodium, potassium, or calcium salts. Additionally, organic acids dissolve better in water and are less corrosive. These are suitable for use in feed and water. The following are the suggested sequential mechanisms of action for organic acid’s bactericidal properties: In the beginning, organic acids in the acid form can pass through the bacterial cell wall. Once inside the bacterial cells, the organic acids dissociate into the conjugated base form, also known as the non-protonated form. This lowers the intracellular pH, which in turn causes a stressful environment for the bacteria that inhibits their growth. Role of organic acids in poultry production include lowering down the pH of the poultry feed and gastrointestinal tract (GIT), improved nutrient utilization in diets by increasing nutrient retention, preventing the growth of pathogens. In the upper portion of the GI system, the pH decrease is more noticeable. In addition to maintaining the proper gut flora, use in drinking water guarantees pathogen reduction and, consequently, crop growth. Organic acids commonly used to reduce the pathogenic microbial load (like Salmonella and Escherichia coli) include short chain fatty acids, volatile fatty acids and weak carboxylic acids. Organic acids also reduce the colonization of pathogens on intestinal wall, preventing damage to epithelial cells. Daily application of short chain fatty acids increases epithelial cell proliferation; quick repairing of intestine, increased villous height and in turn increased absorptive capacity. Medium chain fatty acid (MCFA) destroys the bacteria by penetrating its phospholipid layer and alters the cell membrane through the formation of pores resulting in leakage of contents.

• Probiotics

The FAO/WHO defines probiotics as “live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.” used the term “probiotic” for the first time to describe the “growth promoting factors” that microorganisms generate. Probiotic microorganisms include Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, Bifidobacterium species, and E. coli; probiotic yeasts and fungi include Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus oryzae( La Ragione,.et al.,2001). Both bacteria and yeasts have been classified as either spores or living microorganisms. Lactobacillus and Enterococcus species are probiotics that are categorized as colonizing species, whereas Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Bacillus spp (Tierney et al2004,.) .spores are non-colonizing species. Saccharomyces provides high-quality protein and B complex vitamins.

Benefits of probiotics:

1. Inhibits growth of pathogens and reduces the mortality.
2. Promotes better intestinal health by lowering the frequency of diarrhea and maintaining a desired balance in the microbial population.
3. Plays important role in fast detoxification of mycotoxins
4. Reduce stress associated with administration of antibiotics, temperature, vaccination, transportation
5. Enhances efficacy of vaccines
6. Synthesis Vitamin B complex vitamins
7. Improves litter quality via. enteric and also litter ammonia production.
8. Enhances the intestinal short chain fatty acids which could alter the microbial composition in gut.

Since probiotics produce certain compounds that prevent the growth of pathogens, one mechanism of action linked to them is competitive exclusion. Additionally, they are in competition with the pathogens for space within the intestinal epithelium. Probiotics can also boost immunity by stimulating the immune system because of their capacity to adhere to the intestinal mucosa, which creates a natural barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body. Additionally, the immune system was stimulated by probiotics, which increased immunoglobulin production, stimulated the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes, and increased the production of γ-interferon. Currently, the main factors driving the increased use of probiotics in poultry production are thought to be ensuring antibiotic efficacy without therapeutic involvement, consumer demand for products free of antibiotics, and animal welfare promotion. 

• Prebiotics

Prebiotics are non-digestible food components that enhance the host’s microbial balance by selectively promoting the growth and/or activating the metabolism of one or a small number of beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract (Bailey et al 1991,.) Gibson and Roberfroid first described prebiotics in 1995. In essence, they are short chains of carbohydrates, mostly oligosaccharides like inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides, and galacto-oligosaccharides. A good prebiotic should always taste good as a feed ingredient, not hydrolyze or be absorbed in the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and be easily processed on a large scale. Additionally, it ought to have systemic benefits for host health. Additionally, it promotes endocytosis, cytokines, and chemokines and, by binding with receptors, modifies the innate immune response.

• Synbiotics

The mixture of probiotics and prebiotics (synbiotics) which provides the live culture and feeding them from better survival in the bird’s intestinal tract. Fructo-oligosaccharides and bifidobacteria, and lactitol and lactobacilli are the commonly known combinations of pro and prebiotics for use as synbiotics.The microflora in the intestines is crucial to the health of birds, and when the balance between beneficial microbes is upset, the bird’s general health and performance suffer. This encourages research into the potential benefits of dietary supplements, such as prebiotics, which can help promote the development of healthy microbiota and increase poultry bird productivity. Synbiotics are prebiotic supplements that guarantee the growth of probiotics. Because particular substrate is available for fermentation, the addition of probiotics and prebiotics may enhance the survival and persistence of the beneficial organism in the stomach of birds.

• Phytobiotics

Phytochemicals commonly known as phytobiotics as the plant derived compounds have wide range of activities in plants, animals and humans. Phytobiotics are secondary plant metabolites which are natural, less toxic, residue-free, and growth-enhancing feed additives. These are also called phytogenics or botanicals that are composed of natural bioactive substances of plant origin, including alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, and phenolics. Herbs from flowering, non-persistent, non-woody botanicals and spices from non-leaf portions such as fruits, seeds, bark, or roots, as well as essential oils or extracts and oleoresins, can be categorized as phytobiotics. Phytobiotics modify the gut microflora by reducing the number of pathogenic organisms; improve the performance and digestibility by stimulating salivation, secretion of digestible enzymes, and bile production. Due to the high antibacterial activity of medium-chain fatty acids, nutritional antibiotic can be replaced with phytobiotic. On the other hand, phytochemical compounds of phytobiotics act against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria either in in vivo or in in vitro environment and were also found to reduce the severity of Eimeria spp. infection in broilers by alleviation of dropping score and intestinal lesion score and also reducing oocyst shedding essential oils of lemon, green tea, and turmeric blend have a great efficacy in reducing the count of S. enteritidis and Campylobacter jejuni on the carcass surface of chicken. Additionally, the eucalyptus volatile oils can help broilers suffering from complex respiratory distress brought on by Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Furthermore, phytobiotics stimulate an immunomodulatory action by boosting the proliferation of immune cells and raising the expression of cytokines.

• Spirulina

Spirulina refers to common blue-green algae that are a natural source of protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and minerals. It is also rich in thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, vitamin B12, vitamin C, and antioxidant carotenoids and is commonly used as a feed component in broiler and layer diets throughout the world. When added to the diet of chicks and broilers, Spirulina (i) promotes healthy growth and feed efficiency, (ii) encourages the formation of beneficial bacteria in the gut that enhances broiler health, and (iii) upregulates macrophage phagocytic as well as metabolic pathways. (iv)Improvement of performance parameters, like FCR, body weight gain, greater production, and percentage of carcass yield, was observed in the dietary group supplemented with Spirulina platensis .(v)Access to spirulina powder in the diet at a level of 1% or in drinking water at 0.25% in Japanese quails had beneficial effects on body weight, weight gain, FCR, and fertility when compared with the control groups.(vi)Previous studies also demonstrated that treatment with spirulina increased the number of leukocytes and recommended such as a feed additive to increase the immunity of infected chicken against the avian influenza (AI) H5N1 virus.

• Vitamins

Different vitamins can improve the health status of the poultry which has been proved. Several beneficial effects like improved immune status of the bird increased feed conversion ratio, alteration of beneficial microflora in the gut and intestine. Vitamin C, in particular, plays a significant function in lowering stress, particularly during the summer. It also boosts feed intake, which enhances feed metabolism. One of the other ways that vitamin C promotes health is by preventing birds from losing weight, which is primarily caused by summer stress. Antioxidant vitamin C is synthesized naturally in birds using an enzyme gulonolactone oxidase. Study reveals that broilers fed with vitamin C have shown good performance even under different environmental stress. Vitamin C plays an important role in the metabolism of amino acids and promotes the absorption of minerals mainly iron by maintaining them in the reduced ferrous state. Supply of L-arginine along with vitamin C has improved meat quality in broilers. Another vitamin namely vitamin E also showed improvement in feed conversion ratio and improved growth performance in poultry. Recommended dose of vitamin E is 5 to 25 IU/kg of feed for normal functioning of bird though higher doses has also increased poultry performances. Vitamin Q is most commonly known as ubiquinone due to its distribution among various systems. This is produced endogenously as lipid soluble compound which plays an important role in the energy transformation process inside the cellular mitochondria. Intake of vitamin Q increases the host defence against various microbes bacteria, virus, and protozoa.

 Conclusions

Antibiotics have ruled the poultry industry since several decades as growth promoters. However, due to their over usage bacteria has developed resistance against them thus threatening poultry with the emergence of extremely drug resistant pathogens. Therefore, it is imperative to stop using antibiotics as growth promoters and look for alternatives that might support constructive endeavours. Probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics and vitamins are now used more frequently as a result of recent research efforts focused mostly on finding antibiotic substitutes. Use of these have many potential benefits including improvement in digestion and absorption of nutrients, modification of birds’ metabolism, immunomodulation, and improvement in functioning and health of gut through exclusion and inhibition of pathogens in intestinal tract and improvement in safety of poultry products for human consumption.

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