Integrated Disease Management under Livestock Farming System

Dr. Pankaj Kumar

Scientist, Veterinary Medicine

Division of Livestock and Fisheries Management ICAR-RCER, ICAR Parisar, Patna-14

Email: pankajvet@gmail.com

Introduction:

Integration of various interventions required for treatment, control and prevention of diseases in livestock is referred to as integrated disease management. Various interventions required for animal disease management varies with type of disease and species involved. However major interventions required for animal disease management include prophylaxis, metaphylaxis, nutritional interventions, management interventions, treatment instituted using chemotherapeutics agent, herbal medicine, physiotherapy, nutraceuticals, etc. Traditional livestock systems based on local resources and animal breeds are the major source of livelihood for 200 million rural families, and provide food and income for some 70% of the world’s rural poor. Livestock Farming system in Eastern region of India is based on low input backyard farming and very few high input large commercial livestock farm exists in the region. Low input backyard farming of livestock is generally undertaken along with agriculture farming system in integrated mode by majority of farmers baring urban and peri-urban areas where in livestock farming exists as separate module meant only for commercial milk production. Interestingly, low input backyard farming system of livestock is dependent on inputs form women gender. Majority of livestock related works are carried out by women including cleaning, dung disposal, feeding, forage chaffing, grass cutting, etc. Major sources for zoonotic disease transmission from livestock rearing include dung, urine, after births, etc. and are often handled by women and thus are most potential gender for disease acquiring. Animal wealth in India has increased manifold and presently the Animal Husbandry practices have also been changed to a great extent due to newer interventions and technologies available. However, liberalization of trade after the advent of the WTO’s SPS agreement, the chances of access of exotic diseases into the country have increased. Climate change has resulted in emergence and reemergence of animal diseases. Cross breeding programmes in the country resulted in the improvement in the quality of livestock however the susceptibility of these livestock to various diseases including exotic diseases has increased. The eastern region of the country has high density of livestock as it supports 31.14% of the livestock population of India and occupies only 22.5 % of country geographical areas. Major animal infectious diseases of this region include Foot and Mouth disease (FMD), Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS), Brucellosis, Black Quarter (BQ), Anthrax, Rabies, Johne’s disease, leptospirosis, ringworm, mastitis, etc. In addition to these infectious disease there are many non- infectious disease including metabolic and nutritional deficiency diseases like milk fever, ketosis, Downer’s cow syndrome, mineral deficiency diseases, etc. The present chapter elaborates about few of the important infectious and non-infectious diseases of livestock with respect to its integrated management.

Hemorrhagic Septicemia (HS): It is a highly fatal acute bacterial septicemia affecting mainly buffalo (most susceptible), cattle, sheep, goat and pig populations in our country. The causal agent of the disease is Pasteurella multocida B 2 strain. The disease occurs more commonly in low laying humid areas and is often seen during the periods of highest humidity and stress induced by adverse climate like monsoon season. HS is characterized by high fever, increased respiration, marked salivation,

inflammatory swelling in the head and neck region and protrude on tongue in per acute form, the death occurs usually within few hours, in acute form, the cases may linger up to 3-4 days. Cases in buffalo are always fatal. The mortality rate may go up to 100%.

Animals are infected by direct or indirect contact. The source of infective bacteria is thought to be the nasopharynx of bovine or buffalo carriers. Upto 5% of cattle and water buffaloes may be carriers in endemic regions.

The disease can be treated effectively by oxytetracycline, fluroquinalones and sulphonamides, however due to acute onset and rapid mortality, often treatment cannot be initiated. Therefore, one of the most important strategies to control the outbreak of HS is to immediately remove and isolated the diseased and in-contact animals from the herd or farm. The affected animals and suspected to be infected animals should be immediately be treated with sulfa drug or potentiated sulfa along with other supportive therapy. However, proper strategic vaccination using HS oil adjuvant vaccine is important to achieve maximum economic benefits. During outbreak, the healthy animals should be segregated from the diseased ones and vaccinated. The dead animals should be either burnt or buried under ground, 6 fit deep putting sufficient lime or bleaching powder under and above the carcass. This will prevent disease spread.

Prophylactic vaccination is carried out annually before the onset of monsoon preferably in the month of May-June. Oil adjuvant vaccine is preferable, as it protects the animals for one year. Primary vaccination is done at 6 months of age or above followed by annual revaccination. Treatment recommended for HS is immediate administration of sulfonamides.

Black Quarter (BQ): It is an acute infectious myositis of skeletal muscles, but a non-contagious disease characterized by severe toxemia and high mortality rate in cattle and sheep. The causative agent is soil borne pathogen Clostridium (feseri) chauvoei. The disease is common in cattle and remains confined to young calves between the age of 6 months and 2 years. Buffaloes usually encounter the mild form of disease. The cattle acquire infection from ingestion of organism and the ingested bacteria remain as dormant spores in tissues until predisposing factors stimulate the development of negative forms and rapid multiplication and formation of toxins. Initially there is acute lameness and fever. Characteristic oedematous and crepitating swellings develop in the hip, shoulder chest, back and neck. Death usually occurs within 12-48 hrs.

Prophylactic measures include vaccination and proper hygiene. Proper hygiene requires the destruction of carcases by burning, and cleaning and treatment of all wounds. Penicillin and tetracycline’s if given promptly and inoculated into the site of lesion are of value and should be given in normal therapeutic dose. Sulphathiozole and antitoxic sera are also effective. A formalin inactivated aluminium hydroxide gel adjuvant vaccine is recommended. During outbreaks, all unaffected cattle should be vaccinated and given penicillin at dose of 10,000 IU/ kg BW. Animal having disease and in- contact and suspected to be infected should be isolated from the apparently assumed uninfected animals in the herd/farm/locality. Primary vaccination is done at the age of 6 months followed by annual booster. Wounds should be treated immediately. Combined HS+BQ vaccine are also available commercially.

Brucellosis: Brucellosis is a contagious disease of domestic animals characterized by inflammatory response of reticulo-endothelial system and infection of placenta during pregnancy resulting in retained placenta, abortion and expulsion of the foetus and to a lesser extent, orchitis and infection of the accessory sex glands in males. It is also of zoonotic importance. It is caused by different species of Brucella organism such as B. abortus (cattle and buffalo), B. mellitensis (goat), B. ovis (sheep),

1. suis (pig) and B. canis (dog).

Natural transmission occurs by ingestion of organisms present in large numbers in aborted fetuses, fetal membranes and uterine discharges. Animal may ingest contaminated feed and water, or lick contaminated genitals of other animals. Venereal transmission by infected male to susceptible female seems rare. However, transmission may occur by artificial insemination with infected semen deposited in the uterus but, reportedly, not when deposited in the mid-cervix. The organism may enter the body through mucous membranes, conjunctivae, wounds, or intact skin.

No definite schedule of treatment using various antibiotics alone or combination can cure brucellosis in domestic animals. The organism remains intracellular, capacity to persist in carrier state and therefore most of the antibiotics are ineffective. Most effective approach is prevention of disease by vaccination. Hygienic disposal of uterine discharge, fetus, fetal membrane and infected carcasses are to be observed strictly. Strain 19 Brucella abortus attenuated live vaccine can be used in female calves or adult cattle. The recommended dose is 2 ml given by SC route to female calves of 4-8 months age. This consists of viable culture of B. abortus strain19, which has practically no virulence for guinea pigs and cattle. Sometimes adult pregnant vaccinated cows with strain 19 may show severe reaction and may abort. So it is advised not to vaccinate the pregnant animals and male calves. B. abortus killed 45/20 vaccine has been considered useful in tropical countries. The main advantage of this vaccine is that agglutination test reactors rarely occur following vaccination because this vaccine is of rough strain. The only disadvantage lies with the fact that repeated vaccinations are to be done at specific intervals which is costly. It is not recommended for calves under 6 months of age.

Anthrax: It is a fatal infection characterized by septicemia and sudden death with exudation of tarry blood from the body orifices of the dead animal. This disease is important from zoonotic point of view as it is communicable from animals to humans and the causative organism Bacillus anthracis, has been identified as a possible agent for bioterrorism.   Spores are formed when the materials containing the organisms are exposed to the air and these are capable of in fleeting both animals and humans. The spores may survive in soil for long period ranging from10 years or more, or up to 60 years. The disease commonly occurs in cattle, sheep and goats, but buffaloes, horses, pigs, camels and elephants may also suffer. In per acute form of anthrax, affected animals die within 1-2 hours without any premonitory signs. Momentarily there may be fever, staggering gait, muscle tremors, dyspnoea and collapse. Discharge of blood from nostrils, mouth, anus and vulva is commonly noticed in carcasses died of anthrax. In acute form, there is fever; the animal becomes excited and then depressed. Difficulties in respiration, staggering, convulsions and stupor are observed. Pregnant cows may abort. The oedematous lesions in the region of throat, sternum perineum and flanks are also observed the duration of the disease in this form is 24-48 hrs. The confirmation of diagnosis is made by examination of blood smears and also smears prepared from oedematous fluid. In acute cases, the treatment can be initiated soon after appearance of clinical symptoms using antibiotics, such as strep to-penicillin, oxytetracycline, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin. Anthrax spore vaccine is used before onset of rain or should there is likelihood of flood. Like HS and B vaccine is given to animals 6 months of age and repeated annually. The animal died of anthrax should not be opened and carcass should be burnt or buried as indicated in case of HS.

Leptospirosis: It is important water borne zoonotic disease characterized by septicemia interstitial nephritis, haemolytic anemia and abortion in most species. Different serovars of Leptospira interrogans are responsible for causing infection in cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs suffer from

this disease. Rodents play pivotal role in disease cycle and spread. Source of infection is infected urine, though it can directly penetrate skin, route of infection is mostly by ingestion. The disease occurs more commonly during rainy season and flood. Infected animals excrete numerous Leptospira organisms particularly in their urine which remain viable in river, ponds, canals and mud for longer period and contaminate the water.   The important symptoms consist of fever, jaundice, abortion haemoglobinuria and nephritis. Treatment with antibiotics viz dihydrostreptomycin, oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and enrofloxacin is effective. There is no vaccine available so far for immunization in cattle. The animals should be prohibited from drinking of contaminated water.

Johne`s Disease (JD): It is chronic contagious enteritis of cattle, sheep, goat, buffaloes and occasionally of pigs caused by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis avium. The disease is characterized by chronic diarrhoea and thickening of the intestine in cattle and buffaloes and progressive emaciation and immune suppression. It spreads by ingestion of feed and water contaminated by the faces of infected animals. The infection is acquired in early age of life. The animal aged 3 to 6 years mostly suffer from the disease since the incubation period extends from 12 months to several years. The infected animals which are apparently healthy often show clinical signs after parturition.

The organisms are more resistant to chemotherapeutic agents in vitro than Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Therefore treatment is not attempted. So again, the role of hygiene and prophylaxis comes into play. The affected animal should be segregated and their faces properly disposed off.

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD): It is an economically important viral disease of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes caused by 7 distinct serotypes of Picorna virus. In susceptible population morbidity reaches up to 100%. It is characterized by rise in temperature and vesicles in the mouth, muzzle, teats, and feet, resulting in anorexia, retarded growth, sudden drop in milk production in lactating animals, poor reproductive performance. It also affects endocrine dysfunction resulting in panting, abnormal hair coat and lack of heat tolerance capacity. The virus also affects the immune system of the body. The mortality rate is low except in young animals. Normally the occurrence of FMD is more during March to May. But now, it has no definite epidemiological pattern. It can occur in any season. The occurrence of this disease has also been observed during the periods of flood.

Disease transmission generally occurs by contact with infected animals, However aerosol transmission is also very important, depending on climatic condition (moist humid condition with wind). All excretion and secretion of the affected animal contain virus including milk, semen, even before clinical signs are visible. Even dogs, birds, farm workers in the farm can be source of transmission.

One the biggest problem in implementing strategies for management of animals post outbreak is to check the morbidity and bring back the physical health of animal in terms of lesions in mouth, foot and teats which often due to secondary complication develop into lameness and mastitis. Therefore following measures are required post outbreak of FMD:

1. Restrict disease morbidity: Though it is very difficult to restrict the disease spread due to its transmission mode discussed above, following measures should be immediately be

1. Movement restriction: The movement restriction of all susceptible and infected animals, farm workers, veterinarians, etc should be instituted immediately at farm level, locality, village level, district level and at different levels depending on the severity of Decontamination can be done by using mild acid or alkali (NaOH, most commonly used) or by fumigation. All entry to the farm should be made after foot wash and changing cloths.
   1. Rapid culling: This policy cannot be taken up for dairy cattle herd in our country because of social The process not only decreases the population of susceptible animals but also prevents rapid transmission.
   • Emergency strategic vaccination: Quick response vaccination against FMD is also recommended with effective vaccine chosen having the strain which has caused the outbreak. It takes around 3 days after vaccination for the animal to produce antibodies to combat the Because of this delay, a larger number of animals need to be vaccinated. If vaccination is used it is important that the consumer must be aware that vaccinate animals products are safe to consume and doesn’t pose a hazard to human health.
   1. Separation of animals (Isolation): Isolation is another important aspect which has to be implemented to restrict Once disease outbreak has been notices in any herd or area, immediately all animals in contact or sharing common feed, water and shelter should be isolated for the remaining animals of the farm or locality. Isolation should be done in corner confined area of the farm, if separate isolation facility away from farm area is not available, possible having separate entry and exit point. If separate space is not available, efforts should be made to distance the calf and newborn herd from the affected herd. Susceptible increases in animals already immuno-compromised or stressed either due to chronic diseases or due to lactation or gestational stress. Pregnant animals due to gestational stress are more prone to disease manifestation and often results in abortion or stillbirths. Calves borne from affected animals should not be mixed in health calves. Dead fetus borne should be either burnt or burrowed deep into ground away from the farm.
   1. Therapeutic approach for health recovery: The objective is to prevent secondary bacterial complication and bring back health of animal to near normalcy. Major complication which needs to be addressed post FMD outbreaks are combating problem of anorexia, mouth and teat ulcers, mastitis, resulting lameness and growth retardation. Lesions in mouth and feet should be addressed as priority while handling FMD affected Mouth should be first washed with Potassium permagnent (PP) solution followed by application of borogycerine on the mouth lesions. Foot lesion should be thoroughly but gently washed with PP solution, followed by povidone iodine solution and then apply antiseptic and fly repellent ointment. Antimicrobials generally in veterinary practice are not effective against FMD virus, but antimicrobials are recommended for combating secondary bacterial invaders through the ulcers and resulting immunocompromised state. It is recommended to give for at least 7 days post development of lesions. Nutraceuticals such as multivitamins, liver extracts and mineral supplements are also recommended. These aids in healing as well as helps in revitalizing animal body.

   For control, regular vaccination programme must be undertaken. FMD Oil Adjuvant Vaccine is effective. The dose is 2ml for cattle, buffaloes and calves; 1 ml for sheep and goat. It should be given by deep IM route. Primary vaccination is done at 4 months of age, followed by booster after 9 months of primary vaccination and then subsequent revaccination is done annually. But high risk areas as well as for having solid immunity, it is preferable to repeat the vaccination at 6 monthly intervals. Under field conditions the mass vaccination is generally undertaken in Jan.-Feb. months to avoid the overlapping with other vaccination schedules.

    

   Rabies: Rabies is one of the oldest known fatal viral zoonosis. The rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae, Lyssa virus) affects all warm blooded animals, but it is more prevalent in dogs, cats and in wild carnivores including jackals, foxes, wolves and mongoose. In fact, these wild animals are said to be carriers of rabies virus. Rabies in cattle occurs due to dog bite. Rabies is untreatable and prophylactic or post-exposure vaccination is the only way for protection. After the bite of rabid dogs, the wound should be thoroughly washed with soap and tepid water for 15-20 minutes. After washing, Tr. Iodine or Betadine should be applied on the wound. Post-bite Rabies vaccination is available for man and animals. Almost all vaccines used for animals are inactivated tissue culture vaccines. Current vaccination protocol suggests immediate vaccination and strict quarantine for 90 days. Booster is recommended in 3rd and 8th week of isolation period and just prior to release. The cell culture vaccine is also used both for prophylaxis and post-exposure therapy in cattle. The dose of the vaccine for all types of animals irrespective of age is one ml given by s/c or i/m route. The recommended post exposure vaccination regimen for animals in India is similar to the recommendation of WHO for human beings. The first dose is given at 0 day, followed by 3rd, 7th, 14th, 28th and 90th day post bite.

    

   Ringworm: Ringworm is a transmissible infectious skin disease caused by a fungi Trichophyton verrucosum. The spores can remain alive for years in a dry environment. It occurs in all species of mammals including cattle and man. Direct contact with infected animals is the most common method of spreading the infection. It infects the shafts of the hair and the skin. Exudates ooze from the damaged skin. It mixes with debris from skin and hair and forms a crusty scab. The grayish-white scab is raised than the surrounding skin, located mostly on neck and head. Infection spreads centrifugally. When scabs fall, it leaves a ring with a hairless area in the center. Ringworm will usually cure itself without treatment.   Common treatments include topical application of povidone iodine, thiabendazole paste or any fungicide.

    

   Milk fever or Parturient Paresis

   Milk fever is a disease of high yielding dairy cows due to depression of levels of ionized calcium in tissue fluids around peri-parturient period. It is an acute to per-acute, afebrile, flaccid paralysis of mature dairy cow and manifest by changes in mentation, generalized paresis and circulatory collapse. It is the disease of high producing cows for which increasing age, dry period nutrition, and housing acts as major risk factors. Supplementation of Ca in higher quantities during advanced pregnancy is often redisposing. It will impair the mechanism of intestinal absorption as well as bone resorption to maintain homeostasis. Excess loss of Ca in colostrums, along with insufficient mobilization of Ca from bones and decreased intestinal absorption has been reported as causal factors in milk fever.

   Prevention of milk fever in dairy cows can be achieved by supplementation of 30 gm of Ca per day during pregnancy while supplementation should be reduced to 20 gm/day during last two weeks of pregnancy in order to activate hormonally regulated bone Ca resorption and intestinal Ca absorption mechanisms. Milk fever could also be practically eliminated through dietary manipulations. Application of concept of dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) in mineral supplements to prevent milk fever in cattle was a successful preventive strategy. Dietary anions (sulfur, chloride) are considered as acidogenic, whose excess during Ca stress will increase the concentration of Ca in blood by either increased intestinal absorption or bone mobilization.

    

   Osteodystropies (Osteomalacia and Rickets)

   The skeleton and teeth of mammals contain over 98% of the body’s calcium (Ca) and about 80% of the body’s phosphorus (P). Because of the relative mass and density of bones and teeth, Ca and P are required in large amounts, relative to other macro-minerals. In addition to their critical structural role, these are essential for normal cellular communication and modulation. Calcium is involved in blood clotting, muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses, regulation of the heart, and secretion of hormones, enzyme activation and stabilization. Fortunately, calcium is available in adequate amounts in high quality forages, although calcium can be deficient in weathered or mature forage. Ca deficiency may be primary or secondary, but both conditions results in osteodystrophy. However, the specific disease will depend on the species and age of animal affected. Phosphorus is often discussed together with calcium because these minerals interact in many bodily functions and they are both stored in bone tissue. Phosphorus has many other important physiological roles including cell growth and differentiation, energy utilization and transfer, cell membrane structure, primarily as phospholipids and acid-base and osmotic balances. Phosphorus is also required by ruminal microorganisms for growth and cellular metabolism. Adequate Ca and P nutrition depends on three factors: a sufficient supply of each nutrient, a suitable ratio between them and the presence of vitamin D. These factors are interrelated. The desirable Ca: P ratio is often between 2:1 and 1:1. For dairy cattle, the Ca:P ratio should be at least 2.4:1 for cows when lactating, but should be less than 1.6:1 for dry cows to minimize Ca intake during that period.

   Rickets is one such nutritionally-related metabolic bone disease characterized by a failure of mineralization of bone osteoid and cartilage matrix resulting in visibly swollen joints and lameness. It results in weak, soft bones in young cattle. Retarded bone growth and performance of growing animals. Abnormal bone growth is a common problem in young growing animals of all domestic species. If left untreated, long bones become deformed, leading to angular limb defects, and prone to fractures. Absolute or induced deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D or some combination have been identified as causes of rickets. Absolute minimal daily amounts of all three nutrients are required within appropriate relative ratios to allow for normal mineral deposition in growing bone.

   Osteomalacia is defective mineralization of osteoid on the trabecular and cortical surfaces of bone resulting in weak brittle bones caused by demineralization of bones in adult animals. Clinical signs initiated are similar to those of phosphorus deficiency, however specific signs of osteomalacia are painful condition of bone and joints, stiff gait, moderate lameness, arched back. Hindlegs are most severely affected and hock may be rotated inwards.

    

   Grass Tetany or Grass staggers

   Grass tetany is caused by a deficiency of Mg in the blood; however, not all animals with hypomagnesaemia will develop grass tetany. Normal levels of Mg in the blood are about 2 mg/100 ml of plasma. In a hypomagnesaemic animal, the level of Mg in the blood is reduced to 1 mg/100 ml. In an animal with grass tetany, a level of blood Mg will likely be below 1 mg/100 ml. Cows in transition and up to 2 months post-calving are the most susceptible to grass tetany. This is due to their need for excess minerals because of those that are lost through milk production. Absence of feedback mechanism in the Mg homeostasis, decrease in the rate of Mg mobilization from bone reserves with age, increased requirements of Mg during pregnancy and lactation, in presence of dietary deficiency predisposes dairy cattle to hypomagnesemic tetany. It is also called as lactation tetany, grass staggers or wheat pasture poisoning. Salivary Na: K ratio affects the absorption kinetics of Mg in the rumen. Peak absorption being recorded at ratio of 5:1. As young grasses are rich in K content while deficient in Na, the feeding of dairy animals on such grasses makes animals more prone to hypomagnesemic tetany.

    

   In acute cases, the animals are generally found dead. If the animal is discovered alive, clinical signs may include excitability, twitching, ear flicking, aggressiveness, abnormal gait, vocalization, convulsions, and frothing at the mouth. Their body temperature begins to rise and their heart beats louder and faster. Death generally occurs within 1 h of the onset of symptoms. In sub acute cases, animals remain standing and signs develop over a period of a few days and include abnormal gait, excessive blinking, decreased feed intake, weight loss, and decreased milk production. The sub acute form, if not treated, can also result in death. Lastly, in the chronic form animals may not show signs but there may be sudden death. Chronic deficiency is characterized by dullness, unthriftiness, indifferent appetite which may end in one of above two syndromes. In simultaneous tetany and hypocalcaemia causes paresis and circulatory collapse in adult recently calved cows. Deficiency of Mg in blood affects the impulse transmission at neuromuscular junction, release of neurotransmitter Acetyl choline (ACh), muscle membrane threshold, as well as activation of cholinesterase. This signifies the importance of the assessment of cerebrospinal Mg concentration in the diagnosis of lactation tetany over plasma or serum Mg.

   The prevention of grass tetany depends largely on avoiding conditions that predisposing and precipitating it. Application of fertilizers containing Mg (dolomite or high Mg limestone, MgO) to pasture fields may enhance the pasture Mg content. Pasture dusting with MgO as well as provision of salt containing MgO in ad lib to dairy cattle are some of the effective preventive strategies. Ideal management practices with routine forage testing for its mineral composition (Mg) and accordingly supplementation in the diet might be helpful in prevention of lactation tetany in dairy cows. Adequate amounts of magnesium must be consumed on a daily basis.

    

   Postpartuirent haemoglobinuria

   Parturient hemoglobinemia or hemoglobinuria, red water and nutritional hemoglobinuria have been used synonymously with postparturient hemoglobinuria (PPH). The disease is usually seen in adult dairy cattle during their third to sixth lactation. Post parturient hemoglobin uria tends to occur during the winter months, especially when preceded by a dry growing season. The pathogenesis of erythrocyte destruction leading to anemia and hemoglobin uria in PPH is unknown. In part, this is probably due to the number and diversity of etiological factors associated with the disease. However, the most likely predisposing factors are phosphorus deficiency, which increases osmotic fragility of erythrocytes, and copper deficiency which increases susceptibility of erythrocytes to oxidative injury. The diagnosis of PPH can be made on the basis of the history, clinical and laboratory findings and after eliminating other causes of intravascular hemolysis. Transfusion of large quantities of whole blood is required for severely affected cows. Crystalloid fluids may be beneficial if blood is unavailable and may protect kidney damage. Treatment with sodium acid phosphate or copper glycinate may prevent hemolysis. Correction of mineral deficiencies and elimination of plant toxins from the diet may help prevent recurrence.

    

   Pica

   It is a disturbance related to the appetite and food intake of animal in which animal used to

   ingest materials other than normal food. Nutritional deficiency of one or several dietary components has been incriminated in the development of Pica. Generally dietary deficiency of bulk, in some cases specific deficiency of dietary fibers or deficiency of specific nutrient like salt, cobalt or phosphorus in the diet. Pica is a deficiency syndrome in livestock animals while it is normal physiological behavior in rabbits and foals where it is thought to be method of dietary supplementation or refection of intestinal bacterial flora. Diseases related to chronic abdominal pain (peritonitis/ gastritis), disturbances of central nervous system like rabies, nervous acetonemia have also been incriminated in the genesis of pica in farm animals. Animals affected with pica may chew bones (osteophagia), eat infants (infantophagia), feces (coprophagia), or soil (geophagia). They also eat woods, bark, carrions, and may show cannibalism. Salt hunger is characterized by coat-licking, leather chewing, earth eating and drinking of urine. Erratic behavior of eating abnormal constituents may lead to serious consequences like deaths of young ones in cannibalism, poisoning (lead, botulism), lodgment of foreign bodies in alimentary tract or obstruction of esophagus/stomach, reduction in grazing time etc. It is a challenging task to point out the actual cause of pica in animals. So therapy is generally done on hit and trial basis or balancing of ration by inclusion of all the nutritional components. Pica can be prevented by inclusion of adequate dietary fiber, provision of salt-licks in ad lib or regular supplementation of balanced mineral mix to meet the deficiencies and to prevent geophagia.

    

   Nutritional deficiencies Anemia

   Deficiency of micro-nutrients needed for RBC formation results in anemia which is initially regenerative but ultimately becomes non-regenerative. These micro-nutrients include iron, copper, cobalt (mediated through deficiency of cobalamine).

   Iron deficiency is usually of primary type commonly occurring in newborn animals whose sole food source milk is poor in iron content. Iron is major component of hemoglobin which is oxygen carrying protein. Newborn piglets are more prone to iron deficiency anemia (Piglet anemia) due to their rapid growth rate with high iron requirement, milk with poor iron concentration as sole feed, and no access to soil a main source of iron. Clinically deficiency of iron in piglets is characterized by reduced growth rate and feed intake, mild diarrhea, dyspnea, lethargy, pallor of mucosae, edema of head and forequarters. Increased incidence of stillbirths has been reported in the litter of sow suffering from iron deficiency anemia. Piglet anemia can be prevented by allowing piglet’s access to pasture or dirt yards as a source of iron. For indoor impervious housing system iron should be supplemented at the rate of 15 mg/day until weaning either by oral dosing or by injectable preparations. Oral preparations include ferrous sulfate, iron pyrophosphate, iron-dextran, and iron-galactan while injectables include iron- dextran, iron fumarate, and glutamate.

   Copper deficiency anemia is mostly manifested in primary copper deficiency. Copper is required for metabolism and reutilization of iron released from breakdown of haemoglobin. The presence of hemosiderin deposits in tissues of Cu deficient animals supports the above role of Cu. Preventions aims at supplementation of copper as oral (copper sulphate 1-5 g at weekly interval) or injectable (Cu methionate, Cu glycinate) preparations.

   Cobalt deficiency results in deficiency of vitamin B 12 in animal body. Resulting anemia is normocytic, normochromic and non-regenerative. However the hemoglobin and erythrocyte levels are often within normal range. Cobalt deficient diets should be supplemented with Co to meet recommended dietary concentration of 0.11mg /kg DM of diet for both sheep and cattle.

    

   Goiter:

   Goiter is non-neoplastic and non-inflammatory enlargements of the thyroid gland. Major cause

   of goiter may be due iodine deficiency and is most common in newborn pigs, lambs, calves and foals in iodine-deficient areas. Iodine is an essential trace mineral required in synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency of iron in the animals may be primary or secondary. Secondary deficiency occurs due to conditioning factors in diet like high calcium, gross bacterial pollution of feedstuffs or water, diets containing plants of Brassica species like cabbage, brussels sprouts etc. Subclinical iodine deficiency has been reported as a cause of neonatal mortality. Deficiency of iodine decreased production of thyroxine, hyperplasia of tissue in thyroid gland. The primary deficiency of thyroxine causes weakness and hypoplasia of hairs. Economically important outcomes of iodine deficiency includes loss of libido in bull, failure to express estrus in cow, high incidence of aborted, stillborn or weak calves in cattle, prolonged gestation in mares, ewes, and sows. Major factor responsible for iodine deficiency in farm animals is the failure to provide iodine in the diet. Iodine can be supplemented as salt or as a mineral mixture to meet recommended dietary intake of 0.8-1.0mg/kg DM for lactating and pregnant cows while 0.1-0.3 mg/kg DM for non-pregnant cows and calves. Addition of 200 mg of potassium iodate per kg of salt fulfils the iodine requirement.

    

   Selenium-responsive-disease

   Several diseases of farm animals are caused by or associated with the deficiency of selenium and vitamin E alone or in combination. The enzootic nutritional muscular dystrophy (NMD) or white muscle disease occurs in all farm animal species, but common in young rapidly growing calves, lambs, kids and foals from dams fed for long periods on diets low in selenium and vitamin E (NRC, 1983). Disease is characterized clinically by leg weakness, stiffness, flexion of the hock joints, and muscle tremors. Both cardiac and skeletal muscles have been affected. Acute enzootic NMD has been reported to cause around 100 % case fatality in affected animals. In pigs, Se deficiency results in liver necrosis, hepatosis dietetica, resulting in high mortality. Mulberry heart disease in swine has been attributed to Se deficiency and is complicated by other factors other than Se deficiency. The disease can be prevented by supplementing selenium and vitamin E to deficient animals. Se deficiency diseases can be prevented by administration of Se to the dam during pregnancy in order to build up Se stores in fetus or direct supplementation to young growing animals. The recommended dietary Se requirement in farm animals is 0.1 mg/kg DM content of the diet. Se can be supplemented to animals either by dietary inclusion in feed or water, individual parenteral injections, oral administration or by top-dressing of pastures.

    

   Gender and livestock Health:

   Males and females of all ages participate in small-scale backyard animal production predominant in Eastern region of the country. Men usually own and manage large animals, such as cattle and buffalo, while women are almost always responsible for poultry and small ruminants, such as goats and neonates of large ruminants. In fact, their livestock is often one of the few sources of income over which women have complete control.

   But gender roles change especially during peak agriculture work or as a result of migration of male in the family for earning in lean seasons. Male livestock keepers also have far better access to training and technology and awareness about animal health and related zoonosis. Extension programmes are usually oriented towards men’s livestock, and extensionists lack the incentive and communication skills needed to work with often illiterate women. Interventions to control animal diseases should also take account of gender roles. Men’s income may be more at risk from outbreaks of contagious disease like FMD. But as the primary managers of many activities like stall cleaning, disposal of excreta, after-birth, feeding animals, forage collection etc. make women and children face greater health and economic risks from zoonotic diseases like Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Tuberculosis, Q fever, etc.

   The involvement of women in livestock production is a long-standing tradition all over the world. In eastern region of the country, the majority of livestock raisers are agro-pastoralists, deriving their incomes from both livestock and crop production. Gender roles are considered as the social definition of women and men in a society. It is difficult to generalize about the typical role of women within a livestock production system, as it differs even on a regional basis.

    

   Interventions for restricting Gender disposed Zoonosis:

   Female Gender is more susceptible to contract various animal diseases owing to work share they perform as discussed above. Various intervention required to restrict zoonosis in female gender are:

   1. Educating farm women about various zoonotic diseases which can be transmitted, if carelessly
   2. Training farm women with good animal farm management
   3. On-field practical demonstration of benefits of hand washing with antiseptic
   4. Disposal methods of cow waste including after birth, cow dung,
   5. Demonstrating benefits of using various economical sanitary measures in animal
   6. Free regular health check up of farm women at 6 month interval at Government

   https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/category/integrated-livestock-farming-system/

   Conclusion:

   Animal wealth in India has increased manifold and presently the Animal Husbandry practices have also been changed to a great extent due to newer interventions and technologies available. The Eastern region of the country has high density of livestock as it supports 31.14% of the livestock population of India and occupies only 22.5 % of country geographical areas. Livestock Farming system in Eastern region of India is based on low input backyard farming and very few high input large commercial livestock farm exists in the region. Major important infectious diseases of livestock in eastern region are Foot and mouth disease, Haemorrahgic septicemia, leptospirosis, mastitis, Black quarter, etc and many are important diseases capable of being transmitted from animal to human (zoonotic) and also cause huge economic loss to farmers. Proper integrated disease management is very vital to reduce economic losses due these diseases and also prevent zoonosis. Gender role and disease transmission to animal handler is dependent on type of work performed by Gender. Males and females of all ages participate in small-scale backyard animal production predominant in Eastern region of the country. Male livestock keepers also have far better access to training and technology and awareness about animal health and related zoonosis. Many activities which are related to handling animal waste and its disposal result in zoonosis. Female genders are more susceptible due to more participation in work activity resulting in disease transmission and lack of knowledge, training and public awareness.

    

   REFERENCE-ON REQUEST

2. https://www.ctc-n.org/technologies/livestock-disease-management

Please follow and like us: