LATEST PRACTICES OF POULTRY FARM WASTE DISPOSAL MANAGEMENT & ITS USAGE AS WELATH IN INDIA

LATEST PRACTICES OF POULTRY FARM WASTE DISPOSAL MANAGEMENT & ITS USAGE AS WELATH IN INDIA

Types of poultry waste

1Poultry manure
2. Hatchery waste
3. Slaughter house and processing plant waste
4. Dead bird

POULTRY MANURE

Two main types of waste are produced by poultry enterprises depending on the rearing system adopted on the farm

• Poultry litter – Waste from deep litter systems
  • Cage layer waste – Excreta collected under the cages, spilled feed and feathers.

Poultry manure contains

• Drying
• Oldest, cheapest and feasible method
  • Dried under sunlight and depends on lengths of time, climate and humidity.
  • Drying the manure with heat results in loss of energy and nitrogen.
  • Thin bed drying prevents the breeding of flies, reduces obnoxious odours and maintains the nutrient value of the manure particles.
  • The faster the manure is dried, the higher is the nitrogen value.
• Heaping
• Deep stacking of poultry waste produces considerable heat and had been shown to destroy coliforms.
  • The maximum temperature was reportedly attained in 4-8 days.
• Poultry manure as organic fertilizer
• Poultry manure applications increase the moisture holding capacity of the soil
  • Improve lateral water movement, improves irrigation efficiency and decreases drought
  • Improve soil retention and uptake of plant nutrients.
  • Increase the number and diversity of soil microorganisms.
• Biogas / Electricity generation from poultry litter
• Poultry litter has a good calorific value for power generation by combustion under controlled conditions.
  • The technology for anaerobic conversion of poultry manure to biogas (methane) has been developed.
  • Electricity production facilities estimated assuming poultry litter utilization rates of 1000 tons/year, 10,000 tons/year, and 50,000 tons/year for various technologies range from 34–70 kW, 340–700 kW, and 1.7–3.5 MW, respectively.
  • Economic analysis accounting for capital expenditures, operation and maintenance costs, litter cleanout and transportation, and recoverable sludge/ash value reveal that gasification at a small scale (100 kW) and medium scale (1 MW) is potentially economically viable compared to anaerobic digestion and combustion.
• Composting
• Can be stored for long time
  • Aerobic bacterial action occurs
  • The top foot is composed of fresh manure, the bottom foot is in an anaerobic condition and the central portion is undergoing composting.
  • The essential requirement in managing the deep pit is that the fresh, wet material be adequately aerated to remove the moisture.
  • To further the composting process and to prevent odours the pit must be watertight so that seepage water cannot enter.
  • Little or no odour arising from the pits and manure removal may be delayed for years.
• Pond disposal
• Fresh poultry manure may be flushed into an open, shallow pond.
  • Bacterial action reduces the waste material to a smaller volume.
  • Bacterial growth occurs only during the warm months, the use of ponds is seasonal.
  • The resulting solution may be spread in its liquid state on farmland.
  • Aerobic action produces little odour as the sludge builds up, anaerobic activity takes place and odours may be pronounced.
• Aeration
• Water is poured into the trough to keep the manure fluid and pumps keep the sludge circulating. The effluent is aerated by paddles.
  • The addition of oxygen by the paddles increases the activity of aerobic bacteria, greatly reducing the incidence of any odours.
  • The material is removed in liquid form and usually spread on the land. The material is practically odourless.
• HATCHERY WASTE DISPOSAL
• Solid hatchery waste comprises empty shells, infertile eggs, dead embryos, late hatchings and dead chickens and a viscous liquid from eggs and decaying tissue.
  • Wastewater comes from water used to wash down incubators, hatchers and chick handling areas.
  • Traditional disposal methods for solid hatchery waste include land fill, composting, rendering, and incineration.
• Power generation
• The hatchery waste can be automatically fed by conveyor belts into a furnace which is equipped with a rotating shredder unit for chopping and grinding solid waste.
  • An incinerator system can be used as a furnace to heat the solid and liquid waste to produce steam.
  • The steam can power a turbine generator to produce electricity.
• Rendering
• Simultaneously dries the material and separates the fat from the protein and yields fat and a protein meal should be pathogen free.
• Autoclaved and extruded
• Extruded or autoclaved hatchery waste could be used as livestock feed.
• Boiling
• Hatchery waste should be boiled at 100ºC with a pressure of 2.2 kg/cm2 for 15 min; then boiled again at 100ºC for 5 hours, followed by boiling at 130ºC for 1 h then cooled to ambient temperature.
  • Dead embryos could be boiled for 100ºC for 30 min, soaked in cold water for 20 min to remove shells, sun dried for 4d and used in poultry feed.
• Ensiling
• The eggs were mixed in a 1:1 ratio with formic and propionic acids for 8 weeks at room temperature.
  • The acids act by intervening specifically in the metabolism of the microorganisms involved in spoilage.
  • The reduction in the pH creates an environment which is unfavourable for microorganisms. The rapid reduction in the pH diminishes the growth of bacteria which produce butyric acid and ammonia and promotes the growth of lactic acid-producing bacteria.
  • The lactic acid is responsible for the low pH necessary for storage of the by-product before being used in animal feed.
• Composting
• Composting is a common method for solid organic waste disposal.
  • The decomposition of organic waste is performed by aerobic bacteria, yeasts and fungi. The composting process kills pathogens, converts ammonia nitrogen to organic nitrogen
  • The product can be used as a fertilizer.
  • Disadvantages of composting are loss of some nutrients including nitrogen.
  • Composting with litter eliminates Salmonella
  • The hatchery waste can be mixed with wood shavings to reduce the moisture then composted.
  • The composter turns manure, litter, sour feed stuffs and carcasses into compost in 4 days with minimal labour and mechanical devices.
• Anaerobic digestion systems
• High efficiency process
  • Produces biogas for power generation or heating
  • The bio-solids may be used as a high quality fertilizer and generation of electricity
  • Anaerobic digestion of organic waste by microbial organisms to produce methane and inorganic products
• SLAUGHTER HOUSE WASTE DISPOSAL
• Rendering is a process of cooking and sterilizing non-edible waste
  • Best options for treatment of non-edible wastes by converting waste into meat meal
  • Poultry bye-product hydrolyzed feather meal (or PBHFM) or simply Meat Meal.

Advantages of rendering:

• Rendering is more effective and profitable
  • Converts entire poultry waste into high protein sterilized meat meal
  • Prevents environment pollution by disposing of all biological waste
  • Meat meal is used for making animal feed
• DEAD BIRD DISPOSAL
• Burying
• Disposal of birds for small farms that cannot construct an incinerator.
  • Deep hole may be dug and carcasses buried deeply to prevent worms from carrying infections from the carcass to the surface of the ground
  • Deep narrow trench can also be used
• Pit disposal
• Effective and convenient method for disposal of dead birds.
  • 150 feet from the poultry houses and water supply
  • Flies and insects should not enter the pit
  • The pit should be covered with tar paper or plastic
  • The pit should be near the post mortem room
  • Practical size for pit is about 1.8 m square by 2.4 m deep with drop tube
  • Tight fitting lid on the upper end of the tube to prevent the escape of foul odours and the entrance of flies.
• Incineration
• Burning of the carcass
  • An incinerator is a furnace used for burning.
  • Incineration process uses electricity, firewood or oil
  • Electrical or oil-fired incineration is the best available technology
  • Rapid destruction of disease-producing organisms, leaving only a small amount of
  • Ash which can be distributed on the land
  • Smokeless and odourless burning with minimal air pollution
• Septic tank disposal
• Breaking down the carcasses and waste products in an electrically heated septic tank by the action of mesophilic bacteria.
  • Heat is applied at 37.8ºC and requires 2-3 kwh per day of electricity to maintain this temperature for the two weeks needed for destruction of all but the bones of the carcasses.
  • The bacterial action and speed of decomposition can be accelerated by adding lime and hot water at intervals.
  • Usually a tank of 2000 litre capacity is required for a flock of 10000 birds.
• Composting
• Composting reduce and transform organic waste into a useful end product called “compost”.
  • Alternate layers of litter and paddy straw and dead birds and water
  • Finally, the carcasses are covered with a layer of manure.
  • Once full, a final cover of litter is placed over the carcasses.
  • The temperature of the compost increases rapidly to 60-70ºC within 10 days.
  • Decomposition starts and kills micro-organisms.
  • Temperature decreases after 14-21 days later
  • At this point, the material is moved to the secondary bins
  • Aerated and allowed for a second rise in temperature.
  • The compost material can be safety stored
  • 10 m3 of bin space is required for every 1000 kg of carcass.
• Rendering
• Rendering is a heating process that extracts usable ingredients, such as protein meals and fats.
  • Rendering converts the inedible results from the slaughtering process into meat meal, bone meal, and feather meal

The following methods may be followed as pre-treatment or method for rendering

• Daily pickup
• Daily pickup of poultry carcasses leads to disease transmission.
  • Biosecurity should be practiced.
  • Central carcass disposal sites should be used for commercial conditions
• Freezing
• Dead birds can be stored on the farm in freezing condition until they can be rendered.
  • Freezing reduces or eliminate pollution and improve conditions on the farm
• Fermentation
• Mixes dead birds (which have been ground into 1-inch particles) with a fermentable carbohydrate source, such as sugar, whey, ground corn, or molasses.
  • Reduces the pH level so that pathogenic microorganisms are inactivated and the organic materials are preserved.
  • Biologically safe, pathogen free safely transported to a rendering plant, recovery of nutrients and recycled into usable foodstuffs or animal feed.
• Acid Preservation
• Propionic, phosphoric, or sulfuric acid is added to carcasses.
  • Stored in airtight, plastic containers
  • Eliminate the potential for transmitting pathogenic microorganisms

Advantages of rendering

• Removal of all mortalities from the farm.
  • Eliminates environmental pollution
  • Nutrient losses, water quality, and recycling for profit increase

Usage of Poultry Waste for Welfare of Mankind

1.Poultry Manure and Its Utility in Agriculture

Rearing of chickens is labor intensive and good management skills are required. Management of different variables in production houses must be maintained for the optimum growth of birds and at the same time health of the poultry should be maintained. Poultry litter contains 13 plant nutrients including: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorine, boron, iron, and molybdenum (John et al., Bolan et al., 2004). Litter contains approximately 25% of moisture content. It can be dry also. When combusted can cause increase in temperature of approximately 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. It can be used as a potential energy source (Darren et al., 2006). Poultry manure or chicken manure consists of mainly faeces and urine of chickens. Poultry litter contains mixture of manure with left over feed, feathers and bedding materials like wood shavings or sawdust. It is an organic manure enriched with elements like N, P, K and trace elements like Zn, Cu, As etc. The composition and quality of poultry litter varies with the types of poultry, types of litter used, diet and dietary supplements, and way of collection and storage of the litter (Shamim Reza, 2016). At present, the most common use of poultry litter in agriculture is it’s application to crops as fertilizer. Abroad Regulations have been devised by Management Programs for the proper use of poultry litter. With increase in storage time, nutritional value of the litter deteriorates rapidly. Depending on the processing conditions also, the nutritive value of poultry manure varies. Poultry manure contains nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium at 1-3% range and also other micro-nutrients at considerable amount (Amanullah et al., 2010; Bolan et al., 2010). Besides absorption of moisture, manure has readily available nitrogen, if care is not taken it can cause burning problem. Application of poultry manure for crop production improves soil moisture retention and greater uptake of nutrients by plants. Deep litter manure is produced by layers. The litter consists of rice husk or wood shavings when mixed with the faecal matter of chickens, aerobic fermentation occurs (Simpson, 1986). Application of poultry manure increases the phosphorus content of the soil. The amount of poultry litter that can be applied as fertilizer depends on the phosphorus content of the soil in the field, further this has to be verified by conducting tests. Phosphorus Fertility Index Value (FIV) and its Phosphorus Site Index (PSI) are calculated. It is observed that poultry litter cannot be legally applied to the fields where soils with a FIV greater than 150 and a PSI greater than 100 are recorded (Litchen berg et al., 2002, http://www.arec.umd.edu/Policycenter/). The value of poultry litter in land application as fertilizer depends on several factors, including the value of the nutrients provided, application costs and transportation costs. Under nitrogenbased nutrient management plans, less of the phosphorus and potassium contained in the litter applied, are taken up by crops than under phosphorus-based management plans. The average nutrient value per ton of litter is lower under the nitrogen based nutrient management system than the latter (Sharpley and Moyer, 2000; Tiquia and Tam, 2002). Composting of poultry manure can be done with paddy straw or sorghum straw. The blending of litter with straw increases carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus content of the compost (Amanullah et al., 2007). Composting is done prior to usage of litter as fertilizer. Composting is the controlled biological process of the decomposition of organic materials into a humus rich product that can be used as a fertilizer for agricultural purposes. Composting of litter is by aerobic transformation process, while an anaerobic process results in digestate. There are basically four general methods of producing compost: static pile, standard windrow, improved windrow, and in-vessel and agitation. Static pile is the simplest. It involves mixing of the poultry litter with a carbon source (most often sawdust) and stacking it into a pile that is aerated from below. Windrow methods involve laying out the poultry litter/sawdust mixture in long piles that form tall rows. The rows are turned periodically to increase aeration and thus speed the composting process. Improved windrow is similar to standard windrow but involves greater usage of equipment and facilities that increase production efficiencies (Karanja et al., 2005). Input costs for producing composts include the costs of sawdust as a carbon source, and the costs incurred on cleaning out poultry houses for providing the litter (Musa et al., 2012). The poultry industry is one of the largest and fastest growing industries. It is a source of cheap animal protein but at the same time is also producing lot of waste matter whose proper utilization can be economic and reduce environmental pollution. During handling of manure, and from storage areas greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are released from manure which cause ozone depletion and global warming. Improved manure handling and storage methods are needed to reduce the emission of these gases (Aneja et al., 2006). If used inappropriately causes many economic and environmental hazards. Some special techniques are needed to produce quality litter compost and at the same time reduce pollution. Composting should be done on a suitable base to prevent mixing with ground water. · Compost must be protected from rain and wind in order to prevent water or moisture absorption and protect it from getting contaminated. · When the pile is too dry, or too wet it creates problems of production of dust, or an excessive odour is emitted. Moisture content around 45-50% should be maintained. Fresh poultry litter usage is not safe, as it contains many pathogenic organisms, harmful chemicals, and weed seeds; therefore, composting is necessary to use them as fertilizer. To compost, fresh chicken manure should be mixed with different ratios of Carbon source. The Carbon source is also needed to be a bulking agent that facilitates the aeration of the compost pile. The pile temperature should be maintained between 55 and 65°C for minimum 2 weeks (Rader, 2013).For obtaining sustainable production and clean environment, monitoring environmental factors is an important aspect of poultry litter management practice. Regular analysis of manure samples, soil and drainage water should be analysed for contaminants. All farm activities should be recorded for proper environmental monitoring and subsequent use of poultry manure (Eklind and Kirchmann, 2000). An inoculum of specially selected aerobic bacteria is recommended in order to speed the process and improve humus quality. Mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms are involved and are important in managing the composting process (Van der Wurff et al., 2016). Composting procedure kills pathogens, converts ammonia to stable organic forms and improves the nature of the waste. During composting, solid waste should be aerated regularly by inverting or mixing the material (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2008).When poultry litter is used as a mulching material, it conserves soil moisture and saves the surface feeding roots from drying out in the summer heat and maintains the soil temperature. Poultry manure is capable of improving the biological fertility of mine tailings. Poultry litter is increasingly being used in the rehabilitation of disturbed land resulting from mining and other industrial activities (Franzluebbers and Doraiswamy, 2007).

As Livestock Feed

Poultry manure or litter can be used as feed for cattle and fish. To use the litter as feed the other materials present in it like plastic, feathers, glass pieces etc. must be removed. Poultry litter with ash content more than 28% is not safe to be used as feed, so low ash content must be maintained. Unprocessed poultry litter contains pathogenic microorganisms like Clostridium, Salmonella and Enterobacter spp.; and feed additives, which are added in poultry diet and can be present in the litter as waste byproducts, such as antibiotics, coccidiostats, and arsenicals (Smith and Fries, 1973). Therefore to use as feed, proper processing is a must to eliminate these substances from the litter. Properly processed poultry manure and litter are enriched with protein, minerals and fibre and are mixed with cattle feed for these nutrients. In U.S. they have been used as a useful feed ingredient for around 40 years (Espino et al., 2008).

As a Good Fuel Source

Rising cost of fuel in urban areas leads to development of alternative cheap and renewable sources. Chicken wastes in India are largely used as organic manure for agricultural purposes. Rules are there to minimise spreading of litter on land, and the rising cost of labor for clearance of litter, more attention is being paid to extracting more value from litter (and other by-products from the chicken meat industry, and processing waste) in the form of energy. Methane can be captured from the decomposing manure and converted to electricity or heat, or the waste can be used to produce liquid fuel (Mcanulty et al., 2017). Biogas is a well-established fuel that can supplement or even replace wood as an energy source. In the rural areas of developing countries, biogas units provide fuel for domestic purposes (Nazir, 1991). Biogas production from organic materials not only produces energy, but preserves the nutrients, which can be recycled back to the land in the form of a slurry. Biogas generally comprises of 55‐65 % methane, 35‐45 %carbon dioxide, 0.5‐1.0 % hydrogen sulphide and traces of water vapour. The organic content also acts as a soil conditioner by contributing humus (Integrated Resource Recovery, UNDP Project Management, and Report Number 5). Three basic designs of biogas plants–fixed dome, floating cover , and bag have been used in a number of countries. For domestic purpose biogas is used for cooking and lighting. Poultry litter can be used as a great source of fuel. Poultry litter with moisture content less than 15% can be burnt directly as fuel to generate heat energy. Biogas, a very useful combustible gas with around 60% methane, can also be produced by anaerobic digestion of poultry waste. It is through use of microorganisms which in turn produce biogas, liquid fuel and nutrient-rich solids. In the second case i e by thermo chemical method, heat or chemicals are used to carry out pyrolysis for production of biogas (Elasri and El amin Afilal, 2016). Biogas, produced by poultry litter, can be used for various purposes including fuel for engines, to produce electricity, to produce heat by simply burning and so on. Biogas production in a way contributes for mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gases emission and sequestrating carbon. In Nepal it is used as a technology for meeting household energy requirements than its other utilities (Singh et al., 2008). The temperature variable in the poultry sheds can be maintained by usage of heaters, fans, air movers etc. For these operations energy in the form of electricity is required. Poultry farms and industries are growing and innovative technologies are to be used. With the advent of new technologies poultry waste like litter, can be used for the generation of power energy which can be used for electrical operations (Huang et al., 2015). Research should be in a way so that there will be cost reductions for the generation of power from litter. Electricity is utilized to light the poultry houses, and also in the usage of automated systems (Crawford, 2013, Thesis). Many states in U.S. are producing a huge amount of turkey and broiler waste to use those as renewable green resources and to produce electricity. Benefits and costs of a biogas plant vary depending upon the use of inputs and outputs by the particular user. Studies have shown the applicability of locally made biodigesters in the production of biogas (Rajeni , et al., 2016). The remaining slurry after production of biogas was found to be enriched compost in the bio-digester after biogas production which was suggested to be used for improvement of agricultural soil nutrient and productivity. Using poultry litter to create bioenergy has many benefits, some of which are · Reducing the amount of waste by recovering the energy from waste · Not allowing harmful bacteria, flies and weed seeds near manure , i.e. by utilising it efficiently. · Converting organic nitrogen into usable forms which can be used by plants. The nutrient composition of the litter and how much energy could be produced from the available chicken litter should be determined. Some of these benefits are described in the 2008 US Government paper Livestock waste-to-bioenergy generation opportunities[ page 7941–2]. Darling Downs Fresh Eggs is the first Australian egg producer, and one of only a few in the world, to use renewable energy as electricity, generated from poultry manure by anaerobic digestion. The company in turn reduced its grid electricity usage . The principle is that an anaerobic digester converts the chicken manure to biogas, and a generator converts the biogas to electricity. The re-use of poultry litter resulted in an increase in biogas production, there are also reports that the use of fermentation in the microbiological treatment of poultry litter seems to have negatively influence on production of biogas (Dornelas et al., 2017). In India from broiler and layer hatcheries 9486 million tons of poultry waste is being produced. From the bird litter, produced per day 1.69 million m3 of biogas can be produced. A 2 Kw electricity can be generated from 1m3 of biogas (Ezhilvalavan et al., 2016).

2.Different Uses of Poultry Feathers

To decrease reliance on petroleum resources, industries find a better way to produce biodiesel by utilising the usage of feathers obtained from poultry industries. Chicken feathers can be used for the production of biodiesel, as the feathers contain fat. It is low cost and environmentally friendly. The study concluded that rooster feathers are superior in comparison to broiler feathers as it has important properties of biodiesel (Purandardas et al., 2018). Feathers contain high value keratin which can be utilised for making by products. These products are inexpensive and easily renewable. For meat purpose, consumption of chicken is large and feathers are obtained during production of clean meat. They are disposed off by burning, land filling etc. (Gurav and Jadhav, 2013). The by products should be free of microbial toxins. Feathers are primarily a waste product, which should be processed before use. The product is usually a supplement which is given to pigs or livestock (Park et al., 2000). Feathers are being utilised for decoration purpose. Selection is based upon size, shape and colour. Feathers of peacocks have been used for medicinal purpose for bareness and snake bites (Murari et al., 2005). Feathers are also used as dusters and bedding material. They are warm, soft and lightweight. Feather meal is rich in arginine, threonine and cysteine (El Boushy et al., 1990).The barbs of the feather have the durable properties of being utilised in textile industries. These can be blended with other fibres before synthesizing as yarns. Filamentous polymers can be made out of dimers, tetramers of keratin proteins, which are utilised for the manufacture of fabrics, plastics etc. The protein obtained from feathers can be used as binding agent in textile industries and textile printing (Reddy et al., 2014). Because of warmth, fire resistance, fluffiness nature they can be used with materials used in production of winter season fabrics. Grafting using acrylic monomers can make the feathers to be used as films. Keratin based proteins give more strength. Chicken feathers can be used as a raw material for replacement of petroleum based products used in packaging material such as bioplastics (Ramakrishnan et al., 2018). In the cartons chicken fibres can be used as an interlining material, which will prevent the damage to the delicate materials. The feathers can be used for thermal or sound insulation, in the ceiling or roof tops (Tesfaye et al., 2017). Keratin in feathers, provide protection against insects and pests. Chicken feathers composite boards used in construction industry can replace wood and plastic boards which are combustible (Aranberri et al., 2017). Chicken feather cholesterol can be used in the production of Vitamin D3. Cholesterol can be used for the synthesis of steroid pharmaceuticals (Moore, 1989). If the by-products are not utilised properly or less utilised then it leads to loss of potential revenues. It also adds to the increasing cost towards, disposal of these products. Non utilization of animal by-products in a proper way may create major health problems. Meat, poultry and fish processing wastes have a potential for recycling raw materials or for conversion into useful products of higher value (Jayathilakan et al., 2012). Waste products from the poultry processing and egg production industries must be efficiently dealt with as the growth of these industries depends largely on waste management. Product specific waste is from slaughter house waste from meat production. The waste from meat processing or industry is subjected to quick changes due to protein break down, auto oxidation and changes in enzymatic activity. Such waste includes bones, tendons, skin, the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract, blood and internal organs. These vary with each type of animal (Sielaff, 1996; Grosse,1984). More than half the animal by-products are not suitable for normal consumption, because of their unusual physical and chemical characteristics. As a result, a valuable source of potential revenue is lost, and the cost of disposing of these products is increasing. In India, the slaughter house waste management system is very poor and several measures are being taken for the effective management of wastes generated from slaughter houses. Effective management of liquid waste/effluent by proper treatments, as per the guidelines should be followed (Manual of Sewage treatment published by the Ministry of Urban development). The blood available from the slaughter houses should be collected and make use of its full potential in pharmaceutical industry. Provisions should be made for improved method of dressing, evisceration, safe disposal of waste products, control of odours, curbing activities of illegal slaughtering of animals, provisions of dry rendering plants and modernization of slaughter houses. (http://urbanindia.nic.in).

Uses of Blood, Blood and Chicken

Meal Edible meat by-products contain many essential nutrients. Some are used as medicines because they contain special nutrients such as amino acids, hormones, minerals, vitamins and fatty acids. Not only blood, but several other meat byproducts, has a higher level of moisture than meat. Some examples are lung, kidney, brain, spleen, and tripe. Some organ meat, including liver and kidney, contains a higher level of carbohydrate than other meat materials (Devatkal et al. 2004). Blood is used in food as an emulsifier, a stabilizer, a clarifier, a color additive, and as a nutritional component (Silva and Silvestre, 2003). Blood is approximately 2 percent of the live bird weight, and a source of highly concentrated protein when filtered and dried to produce blood meal. Most blood used in livestock feed is in the form of blood meal. It is used as a protein supplement, as a milk substitute, as a lysine or as a vitamin supplement and is an excellent source of most of the trace minerals. Many blood components such as fibrinogen, fibrinolysin, serotonin, kalikreninsa, immunoglobulins and plasminogen are isolated for chemical or medical uses (Young and Lawrie, 2007). The marrow inside some of the bones can also be used as food. The marrow may be 4.0–6.0% of the carcass weight (West and Shaw 1975). For centuries, bones have been used to make soup and gelatine. Animal organs and glands offer a wide variety of flavours and textures, and often have a high nutritional value. Brain, nervous system and spinal cord are a source of cholesterol which is the raw material for the synthesis of vitamin D3. Cholesterol is also used as an emulsifier in cosmetics (Ejike and Emmanuel 2009). Other materials can be isolated from the hypothalamus of the brain for the same purpose. The World Bank Group (2007) provided detailed and useful environmental health and safety guidelines for all steps of poultry processing, from the reception of live birds, through slaughter and evisceration, to simple waste processing. This infor-mation note focuses on the utilization of organic solids, of which an estimated 1 million tonnes are generated every year world-wide (Charles Michael Williams). For very small or backyard flock operations, slaughter is likely to generate very small quantities of solid wastes, and management of these wastes should focus more on proper disposal and recycling (burial or composting) re-garding biosecurity and human health issues. Chicken meal has high nutritive value for the poultry feed and have major market for the same. Major benefits of using the chicken meal are as poultry feed ingredients. The chicken meal contains moderate to high levels of amino acids like lysine, methionine and threonine. If processed properly the amino acids are highly available. The chicken meal is rich source of digestible protein and minerals (Meeker and Hamilton, 2006). The chicken rendering will help sustain animal agriculture by transforming waste animal tissues in to valuable chicken meal. In India rendering plants are available in Coimbatore, Kerala etc. To have the rendering plants in the State to address the issue of poultry wastes often thrown by poultry stalls on road sides and rivers. The rendering plant converts the waste into sterilized meat meal and manure (The HINDU, INDIA, March 2017). Poultry industry by-products include offal, bone, blood, viscera, feet and feathers but in certain regions these may be considered mainstream products (e.g., chicken feet/paws). Twenty to thirty years ago, meat that remained after automated or manual deboning was not harvested. Today, this is accomplished by mechanical deboners and the resulting meat is used as a major ingredient in emulsion-type meat products (e.g., bologna, frankfurters) and as a minor ingredient in ground meat products (e.g., sausages). Meat/poultry by-products and wastes may contain different species of microorganisms even when the feathers, feet, and intestinal contents are removed. These microorganisms include potential pathogens such as Salmonella sp., Staphylococcus sp., and Clostridium sp. (Salminen and Rintala, 2002). The meat industry generates a lot of waste water. Measuring its organic matter content is the first step in determining treatment(s) and estimating costs. There are several ways to measure and express the organic matter load: BOD5(biological oxygen demand); COD (chemical oxygen demand); total dissolved solids; suspended solids (SS); fats, oils and greases (FOG; these terms will be further explained below). Overall, meat processing effluents are high in nitrogen, phosphorus, solids, and BOD5 levels and can potentially lead to eutrophication (Benka-Coker and Ojior, 1995; Arvanitoyannis and Ladas, 2008). Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a semi-quantitative measure of organic content in waste water. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) measures pollution by using a strong oxidizing compound, orange dichromate, while maintaining the reaction at a high temperature. Total oxygen demand (TOD) measures the amount of oxygen required for combustion of all the material in a water sample at 900°C. In order to reduce waste water surcharges, most medium and large meat processing plants have their own waste water treatment operation. Smaller plants, at the very least, have a primary means of filtering out some of the large materials (feathers, offal) and small meat pieces that contribute to high BOD values. Good management practices for safe and beneficial utilisation of poultry manure for sustainable production and for other alternatives should be explored, and which will have negligible effect on environment should be developed. Knowledge is also required for the effective planning and operation of a waste management system that is appropriate for a particular environment

 DR. B.MURTHY,POULTRY EXPERT,CHENNAI

REFERENCE-ON REQUEST

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