Management of Environmental and Anthropogenic Pollutants in Poultry Housing System

Management of Environmental and Anthropogenic Pollutants in Poultry Housing System

Yash Bhargava, Meena Goswami,  Vikas Pathak, Amitav Bhattacharyya, Sanjay Kumar Bharti, Alok Chaudhary, Rishi Kumar and Abhishek Mishra 

College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandary, DUVASU, Mathura-281001

Dr. Meena Goswami (Corresponding author) ^⃰ 

Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Products Technology,

College of Veterinary Sciences and AH

DUVASU, Mathura, (U.P), India. Pin-281001

e-mail Id: dr.goswami2008@yahoo.co.in

Mob no: +919997323852

Introduction

Poultry farming is now being commercialized and becomes the industry for gaining more and more profit, for this purpose the poultry bird are being hybridized to get certain important traits which are important for production point of view and a new breed of broilers and layers are formed which results in reduction in immune status which their ancestor/native/indigenous breeds was having with respect to bacterial, fungal, viral, parasitic diseases and also for other environmental stress. To avoid these things removal of environmental dust, pest and insects is very much necessary. The chemicals are used as pesticides which again compromise the immunity and ultimately leads to decrease in the production and decrease in production performance.

The dust in the livestock building is composed of organic substances which are indicated by up to 50% of the crude protein of the total mass (Hartung et al., 1983). Virus, fungi, bacteria, yeast and sometimes protozoa can be adsorbed or settle on the dust particles. The largest proportion of the species which get adhered to these particles are streptococci and staphylococci which comprise of about 80% of germ flora some gram negative bacteria are also present in it which are the main root cause of different diseases in the poultry and fungi up to 2% are present (Hartung, et al., 1994). The potentially harmful dust comprises of organic components of the dust in livestock building includes- Feed components like grains, antibiotics, growth promoters. Animal proteins is present in the form of epithelia, serum, feathers, urine, Fecal matter- contains intestinal microflora (pathogenic, non-pathogenic, opportunistic pathogens), intestinal epithelia and digested and undigested feed components, Fungi which grows on the organic matter, Pollen of the plants which can cause allergic reactions to the birds, Grain mites, insect remains, Mineral dust, Gram negative bacteria includes Salmonella spp, Escherichia coli, klebsiella and others, Endotoxins released by the gram negative bacteria (Donham, 1993).

Air born particulates help in transmission of various poultry diseases which includes salmonella enteriditis which is recognized by holt. (Holt, et al., 1998) hopkin and drury in 1971 recognised new castle disease to be transmitted by air (Hopkin, et al., 1971) and ILT (infectious laryngotrachitis virus) by Jhonson was identified to be transmitted by air and dust (Johnson, et al., 2001).

Many diseases caused due to dust which consists of moulds, feathers, biologically active compounds, poultry residues, which produce clinical responses including asthama, chronic bronchitis, chronic airways obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS)(Viegas, et al., 2013). The dust emission rate of poultry  – inhalation dust is 3165 mg/h GVE and alveolar dust is 504 mg/h GVE (GVE- 500kg live weight) (Seedorf, et al., 1998). Bioaerosols are the dust particles which contains the living organisms and there particle size may vary from .5-100 micron. The dust in the poultry houses can have up to 90% of organic matter 339 to 860 ng/m3 inhalable endotoxin and inhalable dust can be reach up to 10mg/m3 the bacteria and fungi can have 100-1000 CFU/liter of air.

Table-1:  Bioaerosol concentration in poultry houses

The transmission of the bio aerosols from the livestock building of the dust particles is seen to be 115 meters (Hartung, et al., 1998) and according to muller the bacteria reaches to 200-300 meters (Muller, et al., 1987). Many of the pathogen losses its viability after 250 seconds in the air due to varying temperature and relative humidity as follows:

Table-2: Viability of pathogens at varying temperature and relative humidity

(Hartung, et al., )

If the poultry house is near the city or in the industrial area then there is increased particulate matter in the air which contains silicon, aluminium, calcium, iron, potassium in major quantity and titanium, sulphur, magnese, zinc, copper, chlorine were found in minor quantity which may cause silicate pneumonicosis in hens of older age group of about 3-4 year. (Roperto, et al., 2000). Lower breeding success poor survival of young in (Tufted duck) Aythyafuligula. Heavy metals and PCBs. (Marquenie, et al., 1986). To reduce the dust from poultry houses of 52% artificial dust, which was generated by mature white leghorns (Mitchell, et al., 2000) and 91% artificially generated dust by ionization method. The negative ionizer bars which are operated at 20kv is tested in poultry house (Gast, et al., 1999). It is about 6 times more effective than gravity settling of a particulate matter and through this method there is reduction in the bacterial agents in the flock. There is 50% decreases in Salmonella enteritidis infection in the flock, and when used for 6 days there is 97%reduction in the infection of Salmonella enteritidis (Holt, et al., 1999). Feed is the primary source of dust in the rearing system (Donham, et al., 1896). Soyabean oil can be added to a dry feed to reduce dust up to 99% the oil is added 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% of the total feed. (Gast, et al., 1986). The dust can also be controlled by feed formulations, feeders, feed delivery systems. Feed coating is also done to reduce the dust in the poultry house.

The advantage of the tree propagation program around the poultry house is to filter the dust coming in the poultry house by wind and moving out of the dust, feathers, odor from the poultry house which increases the aesthetic value for the neighbors of poultry. The filters used for deodorizer and air-conditioners  in environmentally controlled houses were clog these systems by the dust and feathers which will become too much problematic and require too much maintenance (Hartung, et al., 1986).

Pests and insects

The pests are the unwanted organisms in the environment which may spread diseases reduce the productivity, wastes the feed destroy the building and are unproductive in terms of economics. They may be due to the nascence of the neighbor or any other reason with relation to poultry pest. The poultry houses can have beetles, wild birds, rodents, lice, mites, as a pest.There are different types of mites and lice are present in the poultry house as an ectoparasite the northern fowl mite (Ornithonyssus sylviarum), chicken mites / red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae), scaly leg mite, depluming mite. Lice includes chicken body louse, chicken head louse, chicken feather lice, turkey lice. Rather than lice and mites flea are also present- chigger, stick-tight flea and bug includes bed bug (Cimexlectularius) and tick includes Hide Beetle (Dermestesmaculatus),Bat Bug (Cimexadjunctus) also (Cimexpilosellus), lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus).

Manure and litter are the favorable sites for many fly and flea to complete their life cycle and to make the place their habitat thus also known as habitat pest which includes-fruit fly, the little house fly (Fanniacanicularis), the black garbage fly (Hydrotaeaaenescens), house fly (Muscadomestica), flesh flies, blow flies, small dung flies(Sphaerocerid). Birds are also the pest in the poultry houses which gives the maximum contribution for disease spread and feed wastage by both rats and mice. Insect spreads as well as transmits many diseases to the poultry as mosquito carry disease causing agent of fowl pox. HPAI (Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza), Newcastle Disease, Infectious Bursal Disease, Marek disease, Salmonellosis, can be caused by darkling beetles (Bates et al.,  2003). The insects and rodents contaminate the drinking water and leads to coliform infections, avian influenza, Newcastle disease and salmonellosis. Rodents are responsible for causing Fowl cholera and salmonellosis and also damage the equipment and plastic water pipes and electric wires.

Erysipela is a disease of swine, it is a bacterial disease, Erysiepalothrix rheusiopathie is responsible for causing the disease. The disease occurs in mammals and birds also. It can be easily transmitted through poultry red mite (Haematophagous) and  Dermanyssus gallinae. Dermanyssus is a potent vector for its transmission(Chirico, et al., 2003). The highly infectious virus of family paramyxoviridae the Newcastle disease virus is shed in the feces of the infected bird. Muscadomestica is a mechanical vector of new castle virus as they are non-biting flies visit at different areas and sites of manure, decaying organic matter, and faecal matter to oviposit and to feed (Barin, et al., 2010). Heavy infestation of the larvae of the tick Argaspersicus will cause paralysis in the poultry and cause rapid fall in the production and as the larvae was reduced or removed the clinical signs gone to be reversed back to the normal thus it causes heavy economic loss in poultry production.( Rosenstein,  1976).

Table-3: Control methods of pest by different chemical formulations and methods

Fire ants are also common in the poultry houses, so for there suppression some insecticides are used- Abamectin,boric acid,carbaryl, cyfluthrin, dichlorvos, fenoxycarb, hydramethylnon, lambda-cyhalothrin,permethrin, pyriproxyfen, s-methoprene. (Biological control of some insect pests can be done in poultry houses by introducing some mites as- Uropodid Mites, Macrochelid Mite, Macrochelesmuscaedomesticae, Mites Hister beetle Carcinopspumilio, Pteromalid wasp, Fuscurpodavegetans. Macrochelesmus caedomesticae feeds on the eggs and 1^stinstar of the house fly. Fuscurpodavegetans feeds on the 1^st instar of house fly. Carcinopspumilio– larvae and adult feeds on the 1^st instar of house fly.  Now a days chemicals are being so important to be used to treat the problems related to pests and insects which causes serious havocs in the flock and decreases the productivity, with these benefits we also cannot ignore or neglect there impact on the biological or physiological system on the body of the birds and indirect impact to the humans by consumption of the poultry products. There are certain pesticides which are fat soluble or lipophilic in nature and used in the crop production for poultry feeds as well as for dusting, misting, spraying, fogging in the poultry houses and there premises, and reaches to the poultry body and accumulate there in the adipose tissue in the fat. There elimination half-life is 10mg/kg/day and the highest residue of it is in turkey then chicken next to it is geese and minimum is in ducks. The lipophilic pesticides are deltamethrin, diflubenzuron, fipronil, lindane, piperonylbutoxide and spinosad (MacLachlan,  2008).

The residue of the pesticides accumulated in the body tissues or in eggs is directly proportional to the concentration of the pesticide or its parent compound consumed in the feed as lindane, dieldrin, heptachlorepoxide, DDT and its metabolite. But methochlor is a pesticide which will not accumulated in the body at any concentration (Waldron, et al., 1974). The egg contains more amount of oranochlorine pesticides above the maximum residual limit than muscle and other body tissue which do not cross the MRL value (Rabinder, et al., 2006). Use of pesticides (organochlorines) causes severe toxicity in the bird and results in reproductive impairment and affects both adult birds and embryos. In embryos it can cause mortality, wasting syndrome, reduces hatchability. It can causeteratogenic effects as impaired differentiation of the reproductive system, may cause skeletal abnormalities. Some organochlorines can mimic the estrogen hormone and cause neurological abnormalities and other teratogenic effects. These cause suppression of egg formation, egg shell thinning and impaired incubation. In backyard poultry it can cause a change in chick rearing behavior (Gilmen, et al., 1979).

Organochlorine toxicity also includes seizures, lethargy, skin rashes, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness after 24 to 96 hours of its application. The pesticides are about 3 times in the body fat as compared to breast muscle, leg muscle and skin (Singh, et al., 1970). The chicks when exposed to the pyrethroid, organophosphorus and chlorinated pesticides then there is significant elevation in the serum alkaline phosphate. The upper part (proximal) of the femur is subjected to destructive changes, there is reduction in appositional growth of bone by decreases in the osteon activity and increase in the no of the inactivated osteons (Garg, et al., 2004). There is reduced body weight gain in cockerels when endosulphan was administered accidently (Varshney, et al., 1988)

Conclusion

In current scenario, the losses in poultry industry due to dust, particulate matter and respiratory diseases is overwhelming so judicious use of pesticides, odour neutralizers and cleansers (to reduce dust) should be preferred. This article comprises of source and effects of potent poultry hazards and ways to counter them. As the chemicals employed to curb the pest, tick, flea, mite, lice etc. may produce toxicity in birds so keen observation should be kept on their concentration, method of dispersal and any side effects produced in the flock. This will not only ensure efficient use of chemicals economically but also reduce the chances of toxicity-losses and bioaccumulation. In future, our effort should be such that chemicals are replaced by organic and herbal pesticides; which not only will control the parasites but will also enhance the poultry health.

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34. Currency values converted from British pounds sterling to US dollars based on the exchange rate on January 1, 1992, using the currency converter software at http://www.oanda.com/converter/classic. Values were rounded to the nearest cent

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