NOVEL METHODS OF MINERAL DELIVERY FOR LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY TO AUGMENT THE PRODUCTIVITY
Sujatha.V1* and Suresh.C2
- Corresponding author & Assistant Professor, Farmers Training Centre, Tiruvarur – 610 004.
- Assistant Professor and Head, Veterinary University Training & Research Centre, Nagapattinam-611 001
TANUVAS – Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India-600 051
*-Corresponding Author Email I.D:drsujathavasu@gmail.com
Minerals play a dynamic diversified role in maintenance of homeostasis, production and reproduction in livestock and poultry. Mineral malnutrition is the thrust area to manipulate the productivity of livestock and poultry in a sustainable manner. Deficiency of minerals leads to less profitable livestock industry. Excess supplementation of minerals leads to toxicity in animals and environmental issues like algal bloom and eutrophication. Hence, mineral supplementation strategy should be in such a way that it should alleviate deficiency in animals as well as minimize the excretion of minerals, which will lead a path to sustainable ecofriendly livestock production.
Chelated minerals
Minerals are included in the livestock ration at very small amount in the form of premix of inorganic salts such as sulphates, chlorides, carbonates and oxides. In general, feed manufacturers use much higher concentrations of minerals than the safety levels in livestock and poultry feed to achieve optimum performance. Because of wide safety margins in supplementation level, the majority of inorganic trace minerals are excreted as waste, with very low body retention. High inorganic mineral supplementation is not only wasteful, but perhaps also harmful to the environment. Dozier et al. (2002) reported that poultry manure, as applied on nitrogen basis, contained 660% zinc and 560% copper in excess of crop requirement. The possible reasons of low body retention of trace minerals could be ascribed to their tendency to dissociate in the low pH environment of upper gastrointestinal tract, leaving the minerals susceptible to various nutrients and ingredient antagonisms that impair absorption (Underwood and Shuttle, 1999). Patton (1990) stated that the absorption of each mineral could be affected directly by the nutritional body balance of that specific mineral. In addition, phytic acid form complexes with trace minerals those are very stable and highly insoluble, rendering the minerals unavailable for absorption (Leeson and Summers, 2001). Enhanced bioavailability of mineral source (more specifically organic minerals or chelated minerals) can potentially reduce the amount of a mineral that is added to a diet to meet nutritional requirement, leading to reduced amount of mineral excretion.
Enrichment of Soil
- Mineral fertilization of soil – Plant Accumulate – Reach the livestock
- High NPK – reduce Ca, Mg, Na
- Not cost effective method
Area Specific Mineral Mixture (ASMM)
- TANUVAS SMART Mineral Mixture
- Most of Indian States developed ASMM
Biofortification of fodders
Micronutrient rich crop varieties by Plant breeding
Nano-minerals
Nanotechnology is an emerging field of science having various applications in different sectors. An application of nanotechnology in the livestock feeding system is mainly to increase the animal performance by enhancing immunity, antioxidant activities and growth performance of the animal. Proper animal nutrition is a key to successful livestock production. Good nutrition can increase feed efficiency and the rate of gain in animals. Minerals are inorganic elements found in small amounts in the body. Adequate mineral intake and their absorption are needed for various metabolic functions like immune response to pathogenic challenges, reproduction and optimal growth. Strategically mineral supplementation is a complex process because difference in mineral status of various livestock species is critical in order to obtain optimal animal production. Mineral are of two types- major or macro- minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, sulphur and chloride and trace or micro-minerals (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, manganese, iodine, selenium etc). Calcium and phosphorus helps in the increasing bone texture and tensile strength in growing animals. Calcium plays role in making animal physiologically and metabolically active and involved in the transmission of nerve impulse, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, digestive secretion and hormonal balance in the body. Impairment of calcium homeostasis in early stage of lactation leads to milk fever in milking animals. Phosphorus is involved in the components of cell wall and cell content as phospholipids, phosphor-proteins and nucleic acids. Magnesium is involved in much biochemical process like phosphates activation and carbohydrate metabolism. Sodium and potassium regulate cellular fluid volume, acid base equilibrium and active transport of nutrients across the cell membrane. Chloride is essential for the transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Sulphur is an integral component of essential amino acids (Suttle, 2010).
Selenium is an antioxidant that increase immune function. Zinc helps in maintaining the integrity of the skin, hoof, udder lining and protecting the mammary gland from infection. Iron is present in hemoglobin and is necessary for oxygen transportation to the cells. Copper plays role in the synthesis of hemoglobin, bone metabolism and heart functions. Copper deficiency results in anemia, retarded growth rate, reduced milk yield, diarrhea, de-pigmentation of hair and skin, increase risk to parasitism and susceptibility to infectious diseases. The major limiting factor associated with conventional mineral supplementation is their bioavailability. Bioavailability of the minerals can be enhanced by increasing the surface area.
Nano-minerals are used for enhancing the bioavailability in livestock industry. Nano-minerals are having very small sizes (ranging 1 to 100 nm) and larger surface area for higher reactivity which increases the bioavailability. Deficiencies or disturbances in the nutrition of an animal cause a variety of diseases. The trace elements are essential components of enzyme systems. Simple or conditioned deficiencies of mineral elements have reflective effects on metabolism and tissue structure. Supplementation of selenium, chromium and zinc in nano particle were shown improved performance in poultry, pigs and ruminants.
Why nano-materials are different from larger materials?
The physical, chemical, electrical, optical, mechanical and magnetic properties (as well as others, still unknown) of the nanoparticles are quite different from the large particles (even from micron (10-6) size particles (Buzea et al., 2007). These differences in the properties of the nano-materials are probably due to following reasons:
Changed Stability
The atoms of nano-materials are less stable than those of larger structures since the energy required to join adjacent atoms in less. As a consequence of this, the fusion point of a given element changes. For example, the fusion point of a gold particle measuring 2.5 mm is about 930K (≈657oC), which is much lower than 1336K (≈1,063oC), the normal fusion point of this metal at greater volumes.
Quantum effect
As such gold or platinum does not possess any magnetic property. However the nano particles of these metals have magnetism. It is because of quantum effect, where very tiny molecules, just a few nanometers in size, show a behavior similar to a single atom.
Surface area effect
The surface area of the material increases many fold when it is broken into many pieces. For example a 0.3 µg carbon microparticle of 60µm diameter has a surface area of 0.01 mm2; when it is broken to 1 trillion particles of 60 nm diameter, its surface area becomes 11.3 mm2. This provides 1130 time larger surface area for chemical reactions, increasing reactivity to the same tune (Buzea et al., 2007).
Shape of the nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are of innumerable shapes like rectangular discs, cones, canes, “worms”. Elliptical or circular discs,”rolls”. The shape of the nanoparticles strongly influences its biological behavior.
Application of nanotechnology in ruminant nutrition
In animal nutrition, nanotechnology can be used for many purposes. It can be used for obtaining information of a nutrient or bioactive component, its liberation in specific sites of action, greater availability, maintenance of adequate levels for longer periods of time, avoiding its degradation, and lower parenteral invasion (Ross et al., 2004), thus also reducing the stress implied in animal handling.
Nano sized minerals
Minerals are one of the most widely used supplements in animal nutrition. However, in the present form (as inorganic salts) their bioavailability is poor.
Nano-Selenium: Romero-Perez et al. (2010) designed and evaluated sodium selenite nanoparticles (in vitro) as a dietary supplement in ruminants using copolymers of metacrylate, sensible to pH, such that they would not be degraded in the rumen ( near neutral pH), but would in the abomasums, where pH is acidic due to the secretion of HCL. Shi et al. (2009) compared the effects of nano-selenium and methioinine-selenium in goats and found that selenium source had no effect on the growth performance. However, the blood and organ selenium concentrations and plasma glutathione peroxidase activity were slightly higher in nano-selenium group. Shi et al. (2011a) reported that selenium deficiency in goats resulted in abnormal spermatozoa mitochondria. Nano-selenium supplementation in goats enhanced the testis selenium content, testicular and semen GSH-Px activity, protected the membrane system integrity and the tight arrangement of the mid-piece of the mitochondria. Shi et al. (2011a) observed that nano-selenium supplementation in basal diet improved rumen fermentation and feed utilization. Nano-selenium could also stimulate rumen microbial activity, digestive microorganisms or enzyme activity. The optimum dose of nano-selenium was about 3.0g/kg dietary dry matter in sheep. Shi et al. (2011b) concluded that the supplementation of selenium improved growth performance and selenium concentration in blood and tissues in growing male goat. Dietary supplementation of elemental nano-selenium could be utilized more effectively when compared to inorganic or organic selenium. The incorporation of different selenium forms (sodium selenite, selenized yeast and elemental nano-selenium) into growing goat diet increased selenium concentrations in whole blood, serum and tissues. Shi et al. (2011b) conducted an experiment on eight male sheep for 80 days period, sheep were fed the basal diet supplemented with 0 (control), 0.3, 3 and 6g of nano-selenium/kg dry matter. Results indicated that nano-selenium supplementation in basal diet improved rumen fermentation and feed utilization. Nano-selenium could also stimulate rumen microbial activity, digestive microorganisms or enzyme activity. The optimum dose of nano-selenium was about 3.0 g/kg dietary DM in sheep.
Nano-Zn
Dawei et al. (2009) conducted an experiment to investigate the effect of ZnO nano particle diameter (15, 50 and 100 nm) on ability to protect cell integrity from potential damage by free-radical oxidative injury in the primary culture mice intestinal epithelium cell (IEC). The results indicated that in all the nao-ZnO groups, MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) OD value were significantly higher than ZnO group; and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was decreased significantly and SOD and catalase increased than the parhydrol group. The results showed that nano-ZnO reduced the IEC oxidative injury. In another study Feng et al. (2009) used zinc and quantitatively measured MTT activity in a culture test for the assessing the proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells and LDH release (it reflects cell integrity, because LDH is increased when cellular membrane is broken) in mice duodenum-epithelial cells exposed to 10-15 nm and 100 nm nanometer zinc oxide (nano-ZnO) and observed that the nano-ZnO promoted the cell proliferation and reduced the injury to the cells. Zaboli et al. (2013) conducted study on Markhoz goat kids and supplemented with 22.12 mg of Zn/kg DM as basal diet for 70 days doses of zero, 20 and 40 ppm in ZnO group and 20 and 40 ppm in nano ZnO groups. Results show that ZnO and nano ZnO at applied concentrations does not affect growth performance and composition of blood minerals in Markhoz goat kids. Rajendran et al. (2013) conducted an experiment in lactating crossbred Holstein Friesian cow for a period of 75 days and found that nano zinc oxide supplementation at 60ppm significantly improved milk production as compared to those cows that were supplemented with inorganic zinc in the form of zinc oxide.
Nano-ferric phosphate: Iron is normally supplemented as ferrous sulfate, but it has the inconvenience of giving food a metallic taste, and accelerating the oxidation process of fats in cereals, thus making them rancid (Hurrell, 2004). Ferric phosphate is more stable but its availability is poor. However, nanoparticles of ferric phosphate are highly available (Rohner et al., 2007) making it more useful than its normal form.
Nano functional foods
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-carrying nanocomplex from starch, protein and lipid: Functional foods are designed to provide vitamins, minerals and bioactive phytochemicals and macronutrients etc. in a form that efficiently and effectively delivers these important nutrients. Nanostructured vehicles for delivery of micronutrients and flavor release in foods are being developed at University of California. These are the mixtures of lipids and water, which are thermodynamically stable, tiny (~1-10 nm) structures. Similarly, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a bioactive compound that has been recognized by its antioxidant and anticancer properties. One of the problems with CLA is that it oxidizes rapidly losing these properties. Earlier developed nanoparticles of CLA with starch (amylose) were insoluble and therefore had no advantage. Shah et al. (2009) developed soluble nanoparticles of CLA using whey proteins. The resulting CLA-carrying nanocomplex is stable in solution atleast upto 2 months and can be used efficiently in the feeding of animals.
Nanostructural lipide carriers (NLC) to disperse β-carotene: Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) can disperse hydrophobic β-carotene in an aqueous phase as functional food. NLC were produced by melting the lipid blend at 80oC and dispersing it into a hot emulsifier solution (Hentschel et al., 2008).
Bioavailability and delivery of dietary factors using nanotechnology
Feeding studies conducted in rats indicated higher bioavailability and buccal tissue diffusion of nano emulsions of curcumin and quercetin than their macrosuspensions (Nicilosi et al., 2008). Zha et al. (2008) found higher absorption efficiency of chromium nanoparticles in comparison to chromium picolinate and chromium chloride.
Conclusion
Biofertication, Organic chelation of minerals, Nanominerals, Area specific mineral mixture (ASMM) and Biofortification are the novel strategies of mineral supplementation of livestock and poultry. Among the above, the cost effective, ecofriendly and highly bioavailable startegy is highly needed in this situation for supplementation of minerals for livestock and poultry. Eloborate research is highly needed to disseminate the novel technologies from laboratory to land to enable the farmers to adopt the proven supplementation strategy to double their income. Hence, the intervention of veterinarian plays a major role in sustainable livestock production to make the existing generations healthier to produce genetically healthy offsprings.
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