Nutritional Significance and Health Benefits of Designer Eggs: A Nutritional Approach
Abstract
Designer eggs are those whose composition has been altered from that of a normal egg. The composition of a chicken egg could be altered to make it more nutritious. Designer eggs are free of any harmful components, and created by altering the nutrition of chickens or controlling the immune systems of laying chickens. The designer eggs are thus a great food and vitamin supplemented product that provides benefits such as lower cholesterol, higher unsaturated fatty acids, an optimum omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, cardiovascular benefits, and so on. Consumers having lot of benefit from designer eggs, because designer eggs are improving the nutritional quality of eggs by increasing antioxidants and n-3 fatty acids like docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
The benefits of simultaneously enriching eggs with vit-E, carotenoids, selenium, and DHA include enhanced polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) stability during storage and cooking, high availability of nutrients like vitamin E and carotenoids, lack of off-taste also enhanced anti-oxidant as well as n-3 status of those who consume these eggs. “Designer eggs,” according to the relevant scientific research and review, can create a new generation or upcoming era of functional food industry for human beings.
Designer eggs
Egg is considered as natural life supporting chemical storehouse which provides highly nutritious food with biological packaging (egg shell) without any chance of adulteration. It is blessed with all the essential nutrients which can nourish an embryo to a chick. Eggs have been described as “Nature’s original functional food” (Hasler et al., 2000) [5] . They are being used world widely as food due to its protein quality (high biological value), low cost and palatability. In spite of all positives, it is being often blamed as high cholesterol food because of its lipid profile in the yolk. Due to this a cholesterol phobia has been raised among the health cautious populations, which leads to a declining trend in egg consumption throughout the globe especially in western countries (FAO, 2003) [3] . Not only this, the world famous weekly magazine ‘Time’ has devoted one of its issue covering cholesterol phobia as lead topic to make the larger population aware of it (Wallis, 1984) [19] . In the backdrop of above facts, the concept of “Designer Egg” has been evolved with aim to minimise the health negative nutrients (viz. cholesterol and triglycerides) and enriching it with health positive nutrients viz. ω-3 fatty acids and antioxidants, vitamins and minerals (Ankari, 1998).
Animal-derived designer foods are made either by feeding specific diets or by using advanced technologies such as genetic engineering and cross-breeding (Alagawany et al., 2018). In the food sector, designer eggs are a popular category of Nutri-functional food. Advanced progressing of the poultry sector, there is a growing interest in poultry biotechnology for modifying egg composition for human health through genetic and nutritional alterations. As per Narhari (2005), the egg is an increasingly popular option for incorporating a variety of health-promoting ingredients. For this purpose, nutritional modification of the laying hens’ feed, it could be effectively producing an alteration of numerous nutrients in an egg (Hu et al., 2001). This can be achieved by adjusting sterol (Cholesterol) levels, lipid profiles, minerals and amino acids (AA) or by introducing beneficial pharmacological compounds (Alagawany et al., 2018). Designer eggs are vegetarian, immune-boosting, speciality or organic breakfast and lunch with rich in vitamins, minerals, balanced omega-6:3 FA ratio, low cholesterol, high IgG and vital pigment like Flavonoids. Now a day for humans, eggs remain a healthy, highly nutritious with a high nutritional content and quality. Eggs are one of the most popular foods in worldwide because of its nutritious profile, variety, and low cost as a foodstuff. In human diet phospholipids and fatty acids (saturated) are all major contributed through only by animal products (Eaton, 1992).
PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) were found possess unique governing functions, throughout a creation of various physiologically potent chemicals comprising like eicosanoids. The n-6/omega-6 (FA) is two of the most significant PUFA in modern diet. These PUFAs must be obtained through the diet (Parra Cabrera et al., 2011).
In the human body, PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) (n-3 and n-6) being incompatible and have an impact on eicosanoid biosynthesis and inter-cellular communications (Surai, 2001). Arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and (EPA; 20:5n-3) eicosapentaenoic acid and (DHA; 22:6n-3) docosahexaenoic acid can be formed by elongating and desaturating LA and ALA (Gregory et al., 2011). Due to the fact that these 2 classes of PUFAs are physiologically as well as functionally diverse, with often opposing physiological effects (Simopoulos, 1991). Many physiological responses in the human body are hypothesised to be influenced by the absolute level and equilibrium of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs in the diet.
Effects of High Cholesterol · Too much cholesterol can build up in arteries over time. · Leads to Atherosclerosis in vital arteries. · Cause heart attacks and strokes. · A major constituent of gallstone.
Why need of designer eggs?
- The most commonly consumed eggs are chicken eggs, including minerals as well as vitamins like (vit-A), (vit-B2) riboflavin, (vit-B9), vit-B6, vit-B12, choline, Fe, Ca, potassium and phosphorus.
- Researcher, scientists and healthcare professionals faced big complexity and issue, because of egg high cholesterol (approximately 200-300mg/100g) contents (Alagawany et al., 2018).
- Nutritionally modified yolk/value added eggs are another technique to minimize the cholesterol effects of eggs. The total fat content of egg yolks cannot be changed; however, the fat chemical configuration might be changed by changed or revised type of nutrient feed formulation to chickens.
- Optimized formulated nutritional feeding to layer can easily alter saturated (FA) configuration of (Bird) yolk fat (Nutautaite et al., 2021).
- Consumers are always looking for novel food items, and they’re interested in industry for a new type of food which includes health and wellness benefits. The composition of “designer eggs” has been altered from that of the conventional egg because of standard, organic, nutritional rich quality, low fat content, highly healthy & delicious taste etc.
Health benefits
Omega-3 PUFA more than 600 mg and tocopherol more than 6 mg can be found in designer eggs. Eggs have additional health benefits due to their stable ratio omega-6/omega-3 (1:1) and SAFA ratios (1:1). As a result, designer eggs may provide, egg consumers around the world with a new food product alternative and functional choice (Raghuveer and Tandon, 2009; Alagawany et al., 2018). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) rich eggs like columbus eggs, omega 3 eggs, Bio-omega 3 eggs, England’s best, Greek eggs, Baby eggs, Achyrona mega eggs, and omega-3 herbal eggs are available in global markets under various names depending on geographical area (Surai and Sparks, 2001). Egg industry has done a good job of looking for innovative ways to alter consumer perceptions of issues with egg and its foodstuffs, especially the high cholesterol values.
Designer egg proteins easily digestable and because of its high biological contents and present all essential amino acids equivalent to the optimal amino acid balance required by consumers, as well as numerous vit-minerals. Availablity of nutrients existing in egg is not optimized associated through a suggested consumption in humans for improved health prominence (Table No.1). In comparison to the ordinary egg, various nutritional measures increased sterol, n-3 (F.A) as well as lutein+zeaxanthin by 368, 150 and 13.97 percent, simultaneously. Designer eggs saturated fat as well as n-6 fatty acids are dropped as 17.15 and 10.25 percent (Otten et al., 2006).
Eggs provided about 20-30% of the RDI for vit-E, A, and B-12, as well as 10-20% of the RDI for total fatty acids, saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and folate. A single egg could provide 10% protein, 6% vit-A, 6% vit-D, 3% vit-E, 15% vit-B2, 4% vit-B6, 8% vit-B12, 6% folic acid, 2% thiamine, 4% zinc, and 4% iron of the RDI for human beings. A substantial number of these elements in eggs, such as vit-E, omega 3 fatty acids, selenium, and carotenoids, can be improved by changing dietary components (Surai and Sparks, 2006).
Table 1: Nutrient composition (per 100 g) and dietary reference intake (DRI) of key nutrients between standard and designer eggs.
| Components | D.R.I (31 to 50 yr of age) | Standard egg | Designer egg | |
| Female | Male | |||
| Protein Value, gm | 46 | 56 | 12.3 | |
| (CHO) Carbohydrate, gm | 130 | 130 | 1.01 | |
| Total fat, % of kcal | 20-35 | 20-35 | 9.95 g | |
| Saturated fat, % kcal | <10 | <10 | 3.38 g | 2.8 g |
| n-6 (F.A) fatty acid, gm | 12 | 17 | 1.56 | 1.4 g |
| n-3 fatty acid, gm | 1.1 | 1.6 | 0.28 | 0.7 g |
| Cholesterol, mgb | <300 | <300 | 372 | 320 mg |
| Trans-fatty acid, gm | Low level | Low level | 0.054 | |
| EPA and DHA, mgb | 250 | 250 | 49 | 400 mg |
| Vit-A, μg | 700 | 900 | 171 | |
| Vit-D, μg | 5 | 5 | 2.62 | |
| Vit-E, μg | 15 | 15 | 0.48 | 15 mg |
| Vit-K, μg | 90 | 120 | – | |
| Vit-C, mg | 75 | 90 | – | |
| Thiamin, mg | 1.1 | 1.2 | 0.067 | |
| Riboflavin, mg | 1.1 | 1.3 | 0.523 | |
| Niacin, mg | 14 | 16 | 0.103 | |
| Pantothenic acid, mg | 5 | 5 | 1.57 | |
| Vit B6, mg | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.188 | |
| Vit B12, μg | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1 | |
| Folic acid, μg | 400 | 400 | 87 | |
| (Ca) Calcium, mg | 1200 | 1200 | 62 | |
| (Mg) Magnesium, mcg | 320 | 420 | 9 | |
| (P) Phosphorus, mg | 700 | 700 | 193 | |
| (Na) Sodium, g | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.128 | |
| (K) Potassium, g | 4.7 | 4.7 | 0.135 | |
| Copper, μg | 900 | 900 | 53 | |
| Chromium, μg | 20 | 35 | – | 1.0 |
| (I) Iodine, μg | 150 | 150 | – | |
| (Fe) Iron, mg | 8 | 8 | 1.74 | |
| (Mn)Manganese, mg | 1.8 | 2.3 | 0.032 | |
| Molybdenum, μg | 45 | 45 | – | |
| (Se) Selenium, μg | 55 | 55 | 37.2 | |
| (Zn)Zinc, mg | 8 | 8 | 1.32 | |
| Lutein + zeathanthine, mg | – | – | 0.47 | 2.2 mg |
Adapted from Otten et al., (2006), Mc-Guire, US Department of Health and Human Services (2015), Jena and Sahoo (2014)
Table 2: Nutritional content of normal egg and designer egg
| Sr. No. | Nutrient content | Quantity per 100 g of egg contents eggs | |
| Ordinary Egg | Designer Egg | ||
| 1. | saturated fatty acids (Total) | 3.3 gm | 2.8 gm |
| 2. | unsaturated fatty acids (Total) | 6.4 gm | 6.9 gm |
| 3. | (MUFA) Mono-unsaturated fatty acids | 4.4 gm | 4.4 gm |
| 4. | (PUFA) Poly-unsaturated fatty acids | 2.0 gm | 2.5g |
| 5. | (ω-6 F.A) Linoleic acid | 1.9 gm | 1.4g |
| 6. | (ω-3 F.A) Linoleic acid | 0.03g | 0.7g |
| 7. | (DHA+EPA) ω-3 fatty acids | 0.08g | 0.4g |
| 8. | N6/N3 ratio | 17.3g | 1.27 |
| 9. | Unsaturated/Saturated fatty acids | 1.94g | 2.46 |
| 10. | Cholesterol | 400mg | 320mg |
| 11. | Carotenoids | 1.5mg | 2.2mg |
| 12. | Vitamin E | 2mg | 15mg |
| 13. | Se (Selenium) | Trace | 1.8µg |
| 14. | (Cr) Chromium | Trace | 1µg |
(Narhari, 2005)
Omega-3-enriched designer eggs
Commercial table eggs are abundant in n-6 PUFA (primarily 18:2n-6), but little in n-3 fatty acids. Generally 2 kinds of endeavors to generate eggs higher in n-3 PUFA. The easiest method is to make an egg rich in linolenic acid (Van Elswyk, 1997), which is a precursor to DHA and is also thought to safeguard against deadly ischemic heart disease (Van Elswyk, 1997). (Hu et al., 1999).
DHA is associated with the majority of human health endorsing qualities of n-3 fatty acids, a health benefit of ALA-enriched eggs may be limited (because the conversion of linolenic acid to DHA into the human body may not always be effective). When the elderly and children’s diets are high in n-6 PUFAs. The second group or route to increasing n-3 levels in eggs is to include pre-formed DHA in the hen’s diet, which is commonly oil in the fish like (menhaden, tuna) (Leskanich and Noble, 1997).
Health benefits of omega-3-enriched designer eggs
The main benefits of omega-3 eggs for the consumers are the fatty acids that enhance in phospholipids, which results in improved health (Ferrier et al., 1995). Other beneficial effects have been reported, including lower plasma triglyceride concentrations (Jiang and Sim, 1993), systolic and diastolic blood pressures (Farrell, 1994), and platelet aggregation (Farrell, 1994). Consumption of modified eggs reduced overall plasma cholesterol levels in several trials (Lewis et al., 2000).
As a result, eating 1-2 omega-3 eggs per day might ensure health benefits by boosting saturated (F.A) level in lipids as well as, other kind of situations, lowering triglycerides, sterols levels in the body. Most of researcher’s studies found no substantial increased in cholesterols or triglyceride values in human body as outcomes even by eating even huge quantities of omega-3 eggs. 2 of the 25 participants in a recent research by Lewis et al., (2000) responded to increase in dietary cholesterol through egg consumption by having a substantial proliferation in total serum value as well as LDL-cholesterol value (Meester et al., 1998).
These findings could explain the discrepancy in the results of studies on the outcome of egg feeding on plasma triglycerides levels reported over previous 20 years. However, the researchers report that eggs enriched with n-3 PUFAs provide good nutritional value. Scientists also suggest us to increase our intake of n-3 fatty acids by increasing omega-3 fatty acid consumption (Surai and Sparks, 2001).
Commercial production, global market and current research on omega-3 enriched designer egg
- In different nations, different sorts of eggs can be found, United Kingdom, the only designer egg sold in stores is the Belovo ‘Columbus’ egg, which is made in Belgium.
- Omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin-E are abundant in designer eggs (De-meester et al., 1998).
- In Europe, Columbus egg is currently produced in excess of 50 million each year. The nutritional lipid composition of these eggs is balanced (C18, omega-6: omega-3=1:1), as well as a good ratio of structural lipids exists (PUFAs, omega-6:3 ratio=1:3).
- Largest manufacturer of chicken goods in Mexico and North-USA, Pilgrim’s Pride Company, produced the so-called Eggs Plus, which includes more vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids (Marshall et al., 1994)
- Gold Circle Farms (containing 150mg D.H.A, 6mg vit-E, CO, U.S.A.) also Omega Tech. (America) both produces qualitative similar eggs.
How to Design the Egg/Methods of Designing the Egg
A designer egg may be characterized by an egg whose nutrient contents have been altered from the standard one in term of essential fatty acids, cholesterol, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants etc (Sim, 1998) [15] . Simply they can be expressed as ‘Nutritionally enhanced, Value added, Supplemental eggs’. A typical designer egg may have cholesterol level reduced upto 40% and omega-3 fatty acids increased by 6 times as in regular egg (USDA, Nutrient Database, 2011) [18] . As per Narahari (2006) [10] egg is a best vehicle to incorporate several health promoting components in it, therefore possibilities for designer egg are limitless. Such an alteration of various nutrients in an egg could be easily achieved by nutritional manipulation of the laying hens ration (Singh and Sachan, 2010)
Low Cholesterol Designer Egg –
They can be produce by using different supplements in the layers ration.
Supplementation of Chromium –——
The main constraint of egg i.e. cholesterol can be easily manipulated by supplementation of chromium. By supplementing chromium from 250-1000 ppb at the interval of 250 ppb in different groups will significantly decrease the egg cholesterol along with yolk cholesterol (Yildiz et al., 2004) [22] . On the basis of same line Sahin et al (2001) [13] supplementing the chromium in the poultry diet and observe to reduce the yolk and plasma cholesterol beneficially in contrast to the control group.
Supplementation of Copper —–
Another way of reducing the cholesterol concentration in yolk by supplementation of copper. Addition of different amount of Cu to ration of laying hens resulted in decrease yolk cholesterol and blood cholesterol (Ankari et al, 1998) [1] . Supplementing the copper upto 300 mg/kg feed in the diet of poultry will help in reduction of yolk cholesterol along with plasma cholesterol (Osman et al. 2013) [11] . Increasing the dietary copper intake through the use of different copper compounds is not affecting the layer performance and also the cholesterol content of the egg (Pekel, 2011)
Supplementation of Probiotics ——
“Microbial feed additive that have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being of the host” (Fuller, 1989) [4] . Effect of probiotic is mediated via Improved nutrient utilization, Digestive enzyme secretion, Appetite stimulation, Optimization of gut health, Immune modulation (Toms and Powrie, 2001) [17] . Also help increase in daily feed consumption and nitrogen and Ca retention (Nahashon et al., 1996) [9] . Using multi-strain of Probiotic 0.5g/kg of feed supplementation in laying hen diet will leads to increase the Egg production and decrease the yolk cholesterol significantly (Khan et al., 2011) [6] . On the basis of same line supplementing the probiotics (Rhodobacter capsulatus) in layers ration at different rate from 0.01 to 0.04% will also decrease the yolk cholesterol along with yolk triglycerides (Salma et al., 2007) .
Supplementation of Herbals ————
Supplementation of Garlic to laying hen for over 16 week at different levels from 0 to 10% in their diet will significantly lower the serum as well as yolk cholesterol (Chowdhury et al. 2002) [2] . Yalcin et al. (2007) [20] Supplementing Garlic Powder in layers rations which gives positive effect on the reduction of Blood Serum Cholesterol level in 300 layers for 21 weeks. They also show the supplementing the PUFA in diet of layers will gives reduction of cholesterol level in layer diet in diet of layers.
Ω-3 Enriched Designer Egg —————–
As ω-3 fatty acids cannot be synthesized in human body and are supposed to carry out a number of vital functions including regulation of blood lipid profile and inflammatory response with immune-modulation (Yashodhara et al., 2009) [21] . Having different functions as prevents the cardiovascular disorders, Lowers the circulating cholesterol, Suppresses the inflammatory process, Regulates the triglyceride, LDL and HDL, and Enhances immune system. Different dietary sources Fish and Fish oils- Cold-water fish such as salmon, mackerel, menhaden, halibut, and herring, Plants- Flax seed (Linseed), Soyabean, Walnut, and Oils -from Canola, Safflower and vegetable oils and Marine algae. Among all the sources flaxseed oil is the richest source followed by fish and soybean oil. Supplementation of flaxseed oil at different levels from 0%, 1.5% and 3% (Yalcin et al., 2007) [20] and fish oil at the rate of 0%, 2%, 3% and 4% (Maurice, 1994) [7] as source of omega-3 fatty acids at the varying levels in the diet of layer bird resulted in eggs enriched with important ω-3 fatty acids (ALA, EPA and DHA) significantly.
Antioxidant Enriched Designer Eggs —————–
In today’s lifestyle everyone has to experience a lot of stress. These stresses are mediated via oxidative processes which generate a lot of free radicals and peroxides inside the body. Dietary antioxidants are the best counter for such stresses. Designing the eggs with higher content of antioxidant is an added way out. Egg naturally contains antioxidant substances like Vitamin E, Vitamin A, and Selenium etc. But their levels are not sufficient to protect Designer eggs rich in omega-3 fatty acids Supplementation of vitamin E or fish oil (as source of Vitamin E) in the ration of layers led to a linearly increase in content of α-Tocopherol in a dose dependent manner (Meluzzi, et al., 2000) [8] . Vitamin E supplementation not only increased the content of α-Tocopherol but also maintained the higher concentration of ω-3 fatty acids in yolk similar to those of fresh egg (Meluzzi, et al., 2000) [8] . This has led to better shelf life and keeping quality of egg also over a period of 4 weeks (Meluzzi, et al., 2000) [8] . Such egg are now gaining momentum in the global market under different trade names, however Indian market is more encouraging in metro cities and Southern part due to higher number of nonvegetarian and health cautious population. Nonetheless, increasing health awareness and purchasing power of masses is a hope for growth of its market.
Conclusions
Designer eggs could be a good way for humans to get more of the rich nutrients as they need. As a result, attempts have been made to develop dietary composition with highest nutrient composition values that can modify body immunological activities, treat diseases and health complications such as diabetes, cancer, blood, hypertension, lower cholesterol levels. The designer eggs used to provide extra critical nutrients with beneficial quality including vitamins, minerals, essential A.A than standard egg. Designer eggs are major source of therapeutics that provides extra supplements to the body with antibodies that are necessary for optimal health. As nutritional point of view, auspicious health benefits of designer eggs, human consumers widely accepted (Designer egg) transgenic nature modifications, egg genetical manipulation through nutritional approaches.
DR OP SINGH, POULTRY CONSULTANT,LUCKNOW
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