One World, One Health: Prevention and Control of Zonoses

One World, One Health: Prevention and Control of Zonoses

Ajay Kumar, Rajneesh Sirohi, Mamta, Deep Narayan Singh and Yajuvendra Singh

College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, DUVASU, Mathura

One health

An integrated, unified strategy known as “One Health” aims to balance and improve the health of people, animals, and the environment. Threats to the world’s health, like the COVID-19 pandemic, must be prevented, predicted, detected, and handled appropriately. Public, veterinary and environmental health is all a part of one health. The one health approach is especially pertinent to food and water safety, nutrition, the management of pollution, the prevention of antimicrobial resistance and the control of zoonoses (T.B., Brucellossis, Rabies, Rift valley fever and Influenza virus disease)

One strategy for health

To coordinate efforts on human, animal, and environmental health across the organisation, World Health Organization established the One Health Initiative. In addition, as part of the One Health Quadripartite, World Health Organization collaborates with the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Organisation for Animal Health. Food distribution and production, urbanisation, infrastructure growth, international trade and travel, biodiversity loss and climate change-related activities, and increased pressure on the natural resource base are all critical areas that can contribute to the emergence of zoonotic diseases.

Food security

To sustain life and advance good health, it is essential to have access to an adequate supply of safe and nutritious food. More than 200 different diseases, from cancer to diarrhoea, can be brought on by unsafe food that contains hazardous bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemical chemicals. Nearly 1 in 10 individuals, or 600 million people worldwide, are expected to get sick after eating contaminated food each year, which leads to 420 000 fatalities and the loss of 33 million healthy life years.

Food security, dietary needs and safety all go hand in hand. Malnutrition and sickness are brought on by unsafe food, which has a disproportionately negative impact on infant’s young children, elderly and sick people. A secure food supply promotes national economies, trade and tourism while also promoting sustainable development. It also contributes to food and nutrition security.

 Zoonoses

An infectious disease known as a zoonosis has spread from vertebrate animals to human being. Zoonotic infections can spread to people by direct contact, food, water, environment, viral, bacterial, parasitic, or other unconventional agents. Due to our strong contact with animals in agriculture, as companions and in the natural environment, they constitute a significant public health issue globally. Zoonoses can also interfere with the trade and production of animal products used for food and other purposes. Zoonoses make up a significant portion of all newly exposed infectious diseases as well as many previously known ones. A few diseases, like HIV, start as zoonotic strains before evolving into human-only varieties. Salmonellosis and the Ebola virus diseases are two examples of zoonoses that can repeatedly cause disease outbreaks. Others, like the corona virus that causes COVID-19, have the ability to spread pandemics over the world.

Strategies

Following strategies should be considered to prevent the introduction of diseases in a farm or control the spread of diseases amongst animals in the farm.

1. Management of new arrival animals to prevent introduction of disease in a farm
2. Regulation of farm traffic to prevent spread of diseases
3. Housing management to prevent spread of diseases
4. Sanitization and disinfection
5. Prevent entry of foreign animals diseases through border control
6. Vector control
7. Early diagnosis
8. Genetic improvement
9. Proper nutrition
10. Epidemiological diagnosis
11. Health education
12. Vaccination
13. Disposal of carcass
14. Cleaning of Animals
15. Keeping closed herd
16. Management of new arrival animals to prevent introduction of disease in a farm

The purpose of quarantine is to separate animals that appear to be healthy but have been exposed to infection risk from those that appear to be healthy but have not been exposed to infection risk, especially when those animals are being introduced into the herd for the first time. Quarantine of new animals for minimum 30 days before allowing contact with animals on-farm. The rabies quarantine should last for roughly six months. Quarantined animals should not share feeders, waterers or equipment with resident cattle. Animals should undergo a thorough check for parasitic infestation during the quarantine period using faeces, and if necessary, deworming should be done on the 23^rd or 24^th day. Prevent the spread of contagious mastitis by milking the new animals last. Sanitize the milking equipment after milking new animals. Check the new animal’s temperature every day or at least every other day during the quarantine period.

1. Regulation of farm traffic to prevent spread of diseases
2. Low risk visitors

Those who have no contact with livestock, present very little risk of carrying diseases

1. Moderate risk visitors

People who routinely visit farms but have little or no contact with animals – salesmen, delivery men, mechanics etc.

• High risk visitors

They include vets, livestock owners, labour or other personnel who have close contact with the animals and their body discharges.

 Precautions:

• Provide boots and coveralls (disposable preferred)
• Do not allow them to enter animal sheds or feeding areas
• Do not allow them to bring food along with them
• Ask them to sanitize their hands on entry and before leaving

 Farm vehicle regulation

• It is preferable to keep the chaff cutter outside the farm area. The chopped fodder is mechanically dropped in the trailer
• Separate tractor should be used within the farm premises and fodder area
• Vehicles should be clean and free of visible manure on tires. Livestock trucks and trailers should be cleaned and disinfected prior to arriving at the farm
• Only essential vehicles to enter farm
• Vehicles should pass through tyre dips of minimum 5.5 m length, 3.5 m width and a depth of 6-9 inches at the centre
• Service vehicles (tractor, trailer etc.) are to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected on a regular basis
• Manure vehicles are to be cleaned and disinfected daily

1. Housing management to prevent spread of diseases

Disease can spread between different categories of cattle in a farm. So the different categories cattle like cattle like calves, heifer, dry and milch animal, bull should house separately. For example of many diseases are transmitted from old to young animal like E. coli scours, coccidiosis Salmonellosis.

• Under ordinary conditions, daily scrubbing and washing of houses and the action of sunlight falling in the houses are sufficient enough to keep them moderately germ-free.
• But when a disease outbreak has occurred disinfection is a must and should be carried out scrupulously.
• All floors, walls up to height of 1.5 m, interiors of mangers, water troughs and other fittings and equipments coming in contact with animals are all to be disinfected.
• The first step in disinfection of animal houses is removal of all filth, as the power of disinfectants is greatly reduced in the presence of organic matter.
• If the floor is of earth, which is generally the case in Indian villages, the top 10 cm earth should be removed and disposed off along with bedding materials.
• The approved disinfectant solution should then be coated liberally over the place by sprinkling or preferably by spraying and left so to act for 24 hours.
• After this period, the animal house should again be washed with clean water and left to dry by wind and sunlight.
• The interior of water troughs and mangers should be whitewashed.
• Dry and mich cow are house separately.
• Provide adequate floor space to avoided overcrowding

1. Sanitization and disinfection
2. Bleaching powder (Chloride of lime)

• It can be used for disinfection of animal houses when a contagious disease has occurred and for sterilization of water supplies.
• It should not be used in milking barns as its strong odour may taint milk.
• Concentration required is not less than 30 per cent available chlorine.
• Mode of application is dusting.
• Bleaching powder must be stored in airtight bins as damp surroundings, exposure light and air causes it decompose rapidly.

1. Lime (Calcium Oxide, quick lime)

• It is a deodorant as well as a disinfectant.
• It can be used for sprinkling on manure and animal discharges, on floors or as a whitewash or milk of lime (also known as slacked lime).
• Mode of application is sprinkling, scrubbing or sometimes dusting.
• Always use freshly prepared lime only.
• Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC)
• These are cationic detergents.
• They have no effect on spores and viruses.
• They can be used to disinfect dairy utensils, udders, milkers’ hands and towels for wiping udders.
• Cetrimide, a white powder is an example for QAC.
• Concentration requires is 0.1 per cent solution (0.5 per cent cream for applying on teats and hands to prevent mastitis.
• Mode of application is wiping of udder with clothes wetted in 0.1 per cent solution; washing of milkers’ hands.
• Utensils should be scrubbed with boiling water before rinsing with QAC.

1. Washing Soda (Soda ash, Sodium carbonate)

• It is good for disinfection of barn premises upon which an outbreak of virus disease like foot-and-mouth disease has occurred.
• It is a good detergent.
• Concentration required is 4 per cent solution.
• Mode of application is scrubbing.
• Lye is better against Foot-and-mouth disease virus than soda ash.
• It should be used as a hot solution.

1. Phenol (Carbolic acid)

• Effective against several types of bacteria; not so effective on spores and viruses.
• Its disinfectant value is not reduced by the presence of organic matter but oil or alcohol does so.
• It is very toxic, corrosive and irritant.
• Concentration required is 1-2 per cent.
• Mode of application is splashing.
• Great care should be taken in using phenol to protect eyes, skin and clothing.

1. Prevent entry of foreign animal’s diseases through border control

• The exporting and importing animals are to be quarantined at the ports for preventing entry of new diseases. Separate export and import quarantine stations should be constructed at ports. The animal imported from a country should bear health certificate of not having any disease from that country. The animal is to quarantine a minimum period of 30 days. During this period they should be regularly screened for presence of any disease.

1. Vector control

Invertebrate vector spread many diseases like malaria, Q-fever, Japanese encephalitis, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis etc. Vector control is less direct approach of disease prevention or control with little or n involvement of livestock owners or affected population. Vector control requires an integrated approach consisting of following activity like environmental, chemical and biological measures.

• To decrease or eradicate intermediate host populations, direct action may be performed.
• A decrease in the number of intermediate hosts for snails caused by management techniques like fence and drainage.
• Reducing contact between intermediate and ultimate hosts through managerial changes.
• The use of chemical (insecticides/acaricides), biological (hymenopterous insects, entomopathogenic fungi, and Bacillus thuringiensis), and genetic (sterile male technique, chromosomal translocation) controls to reduce the number of insect and tick vectors.
• Controlling certain parasites requires the destruction of reservoir hosts, such as rodents for Leishmania and antelopes for African trypanosomes.
• Reduction of the number of intermediate hosts for the Maris species of snails through chemical (molluscides) or biological (ducks) control.

1. Early diagnosis

Early diagnosis can help in early treatment and cure and also prevent spread of disease by identifying the causative agent. Regular screening of animal trough blood faeces, urine and milk examination can helps in early detection of diseases. The development of various immunological and molecular techniques such as ELISA, RIA, DNA probe, RFLP, PCR and agglutination tests etc. have revolutionized diagnosis procedure with their wide acceptability.

S.N.	Diseases	Diagnostic test
1.	Tuberculosis (Humans)	Mantoux tuberculin skin test (TST)
2.	Tuberculosis (Animals)	Single Intradermal Comparative Cervical Tuberculin (SICCT) test or Stormont test
3.	Mycobacterium paratuberculosis	Johnin test
4.	Brucellosis	Agglutination test
5.	Mastitis	Strip Cup Test, California Mastitis Test (CMT)

 

1. Genetic improvement

The genetically resistant animal’s disease cans evolved through selective breeding and crossbreeding. Crossbreeding includes the disease resistance capability of indigenous breed.

1. Proper nutrition

Adequate nutrition should be supplied to the animals through feed this will help in strengthening immunity against diseases and facilitate development of strong immunity response resulting in high level productivity. It will reduce the cost treatment of a farm.

1. Epidemiological diagnosis

Epidemiology is measure contributor to success of disease control and prevention. In epidemiological diagnosis frequency and pattern of disease occurrence are quantified with their possible determinants. Regular surveillance provides information about cases of disease and suspected outbreaks of disease including frequency of disease, it time and place of occurrence and associated factor. The information are analyzed to determine immediate and long term need for purposeful action against the disease.

1. Health education

Health education is the one of the most effective preventive devices to control or prevent animal diseases through education of owner and associated community. The health education makes the community aware of the cause, mode of disease transmission, treatment and prevention of disease. Health education through mass media such as cinema radio, newspaper, TV, wall slogan, poster etc. can be very effective.

1. Vaccination

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting you against hazardous infections. By injecting biological chemicals known as vaccines, the practice of vaccination involves intentionally increasing in the animal body immunity against particular infectious diseases. The term vaccine refers to an antigen used to produce active immunity in animals. Antigens might be live, attenuated, or dead bacteria, viruses, or fungi. The word also covers toxins, toxoids, and other metabolites created by bacteria and employed as vaccine ingredients. The young ones and farm animals should receive vaccinations at the right dates and intervals. Veterinary professionals should be consulted before administering vaccines.

1. Disposal of carcass

• Proper disposal of carcasses of animals died of infectious disease is of utmost importance in preventing the spread of diseases to other animals and humans.
• Carcasses should never be disposed off by depositing them in or near a stream of flowing water, because this will carry infections to points downstream.
• An animal died of a infectious disease should not be allowed to remain longer in sheds as biting insects, rodents, etc. can reach it.
• Unless approved by a veterinarian (only in a disinfected place) it is not safe to open carcasses of animals that have died of a disease.
• All carcasses should be disposed of properly either by burying or by burning.

1. Cleaning of Animals

• Wash and scrub the animals to remove any dirt or dung on the body
• Practice foot bathing on a regular basis
• Carry out hoof trimming on a regular basis twice a year
• Animals should be brushed regularly
• The veterinarian or in- charge should make sure that the animal is not carrying any excessive litter or particles of feed on its body or its hooves when entering the milking area

1. Keeping closed herd

• Keeping a closed herd is one way to protect cattle from infectious disease. In a closed herd, no cattle enter the farm.
• It can be done either by resident cattle do not make contact with any cattle from other farms
• A herd is not closed if : Cattle return to the herd after going to shows, community pastures or performance evaluation centers
• Cattle uses a pasture that shares a fence line with cattle in pasture on a different farm

Conclusions

The losses due to diseases can be avoided by application of effective disease control and prevention measures. The Motto should be “Prevention is better than cure”. The incidence of disease occurrence can be minimized by taking various effective measures like management of new arrival animals, regulation of farm traffic, housing management, sanitization and disinfection, prevent entry of foreign animals, vector control, early diagnosis, genetic improvement, proper nutrition, epidemiological diagnosis, health education, vaccination etc. Biosecurity plays an unanimous role in control of disease and its transmission in livestock farm. It should be a fundamental part of livestock routine practices. Proper care should be taken while implying any biosecurity measures on livestock farm.

One world, one health: Prevent zoonoses!