Production of Drug Residue, Pesticide Residue and Toxin Free Feed
Ankita patel1, Vaibhav Patel2, Shaurab Pratap Singh1, Puja panday1, Himanshu Garg1 and Naitam Shubham Devidas1
1MVSc Scholar, Deportment of Animal Nutrition DUVASU Mathura, U.P.
2MVSc Scholar, Division of Animal Genetics and Breeding NDRI Kernel, Haryana
Abstract
Last few decades’ poultry industry has transformed from back yard poultry to commercial farm, but the issues of food safety and quality remains unaddressed. A survey, suggests that the ingestion of veterinary drug residues in feed of animal constitutes a potential health hazard for animal, including, specifically, the possibility of developing multidrug resistance, carcinogenicity, and disruption of intestinal normal micro flora. So the reduce of these residue by different cooking procedures, heating temperatures, storage times, fermentation, and pH have the potential to decrease drug residues in feed of animals. Fermentation treatments also decreased levels of drugs and pesticides such as dimethoate, Malathion, Dichlorodiphenyl Dichloroethylene, and lindane. PH, known to influence decreases in cloxacillin and oxacillin levels, reportedly enhanced the dissolution of antimicrobial drug residues. Pressure cooking also reduced aldrin, dieldrin, and endosulfan in feed. Therefore, this review provides updated information on the control of drug residues in feed, which is of significance to health of animals and birds.
Keywords- Effect, reduction, residue, withdrawal period, veterinary drugs.
Introduction
Human beings consume protein-rich foods, mainly of animal origin (milk, meat, and eggs), to fulfill their nutritional requirements, and their health has been associated with the nature and quality of the food consumed. Nevertheless, the quality of animal-based products is of great concern with regard to consumer health globally. Veterinary drugs such as antibiotics are generally used to enhance production, improve the feed conversion ratio, and treat diseases in food-producing animals. However, the benefits of drug administration to farm animals used for food production are also accompanied by the risks associated with drug residues in the edible parts of treated animals. Growth promoters, sedative drugs, anticoccidials, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), and anti-helminthics are the main veterinary drugs that potentially contaminate food-stuff. Therefore, veterinary drug residues have been considered as a global food contamination challenge. Residues are defined as chemical substances or metabolites of medicinal products that may accumulate within the tissues or edible parts of treated animals. These residues may result from inappropriate or extra-label drug usage, failure to maintain drug withdrawal periods, or poor livestock production practices. The treated animals may rapidly and efficiently metabolize some drugs while slowly and poorly metabolizing others; thus, the residues accumulate in the edible portion of the animals. Subsequently, consumers are exposed to these residues, resulting in health hazards. Different cooking procedures, temperatures, and storage times, as well as the fermentation processes, have the potential to reduce veterinary drug residues. Hence, this paper aimed to review the potential sources of veterinary drug residues and their effects on the health of the public and highlight prevention, control, and reduction measures of drug residues in food producing animals.
Different residues and their sources in animal products
Pesticide residues in food and feed frequently attract the attention of the public at large. Consumers can potentially be exposed to residues via consumption of food derived from treated animals. This includes meat and meat products derived from the main food species (bovines, sheep, pigs and poultry), as well as farmed fish, milk, eggs and honey. In the main, the types of drugs used in animal treatment are also used to treat disease in humans, and the side effects of these drugs at high doses are well-known. It is therefore of critical importance that residues of such drugs are either not present in animals or animal products destined for the human food chain, or are present at such a level that adverse effects on the health of consumers cannot occur. One area of particular concern in relation to residues of animal remedies is the increasing spread of antibiotic resistance among bacterial species causing disease in humans. At the maximum residue levels in food established for approved animal remedies, health effects are not anticipated in consumers. Consumers can potentially be exposed to residues of animal remedies via consumption of food derived from treated animals.
It is necessary to collect data on residues and their safety as a basis for establishing safe residue concentrations and withdrawal periods for food animal drugs. Veterinary medicines are an essential part of modern livestock production in regard to the prevention and treatment of disease, the treatment of injuries which can adversely affect the productivity, profitability and welfare of animals. It is vital though that these products are used responsibly to prevent animals suffering and to safe guard the human food chain. For these reasons the authorization, supply and use of veterinary medicines is strictly regulated. Regulatory authorities establish maximum residue limits or tolerances and set withdrawal times that ensure residues of the active constituent will not exceed the MRL when the label instructions for the product are followed. Most of the pesticides used in agriculture are herbicides, insecticides and fungicides have been of most concern in meat, milk and eggs.
Reasons for more pesticide residues in India
- Indiscrimate use of pesticides: The farmers use pesticides more frequently and in increased doses than the recommended doses or procedures. It leads to the presence of high amount of residues in food commodities.
- Lack of education: Most of the farmers working in the agricultural fields are either illiterate or having low formal education. They are not able to understand and read the instructions mentioned on pesticide containers or in the literature supplied with them. Their tendency is to use comparatively higher quantity of pesticides than recommended by the scientists/manufacturers. They ignore the required dilution factor and use much higher concentration of the pesticides. They are even not aware of the harmful effects of the pesticides and do not properly dispose the used containers of the pesticides.
- For increased production and profit: Most of the farmers have impression in their mind that use of more pesticide will lead to higher production. Therefore, the desire of more production and profit leads to Indiscrimate use of pesticides in crops which ultimately enters in the food chain.
- Lack of safer pesticides: So far very few pesticides have been discovered which are harmless to human being or other domestic animals. Therefore, farmers have to use the available pesticides only which have a very narrow safety margin.
- Use of banned pesticides: In our country most of the banned pesticides are available in market and are used in various agricultural operations. This is primary because of the failure of Govt. to formulate and implement effective policies regarding the use of pesticides. Secondly, the socioeconomic condition of farmers does not allow to strictly monitoring the use of dangerous pesticides in agriculture and animal husbandry. These pesticides have been banned because of their acute/chronic harmful effects on the animal/human health. Thus, their use adds to the misery and poor health of farmers and consumers. In spite of ban, DDT and BHC are still produced in India and we have 77% DDT and 95% BHC in India out of their total production in world.
- Man is ultimate consumer: Man is the ultimate consumer of pesticide residues in the food chain. These pesticide residues ultimately get accumulated in the man especially in the adipose tissue, blood and lymphoid organs. Pesticide residues reaches in animals through fodder, water, air and other feed stuffs and then accumulates in human being through milk, meat, egg and other animal products. Residues of various pesticides like DDT, Carbaryl, Heptachlor, PCB etc have been reported from animal products in our country. Most of research on pesticide toxicity has been directed towards the assessment of their acute effects.
Decreasing Residues in Animal Food Products
Proper drug use and good veterinary practices may lead to healthy and fresh edible animal products. However, the negative consequences of drug use, such as drug residues, continue to affect food; the levels of these residues sometimes exceed the limits of safe consumer levels. However, several drug-related factors such as drug formulation type, site, and route of administration, dose, and animal-related factors such as breed, age, sex, and body condition, have potential effects on the pharmacokinetics and drug residue levels in milk, meat, eggs, and other edible tissues. Drug residue concentration in tissues depends on the physicochemical properties of the drug, such as acidic or basic properties and lipid solubility, which regulate the passive diffusion of drugs through cell membranes. Highly lipid-soluble drugs readily enter the intra and extracellular tissue compartments through passive diffusion; whereas drugs with poor lipid solubility remain in the extracellular compartment administration through animal ears helps prevent drug residue accumulation in edible animal tissues. However, most animal products are not consumed raw; hence, different heat treatments (pasteurization, sterilization, steaming, boiling, frying, or roasting) can cause drug residue loss through evaporation, co-distillation, and/or thermal degradation. Furthermore, fermentation, different pH levels, and storage times also have a considerable impact on the reduction of drug residues in different edible products.
Reduction of Residues in Milk and Milk Products
Veterinary drug residues in milk remain a paramount concern to farmers, processors, milk regulatory agencies, and consumers because milk is widely consumed by people of all ages. Veterinary drugs are broadly used to treat several cattle diseases or increase milk production. Consequently, drug residues are accumulated and secreted alongside milk. However, before consumption, a majority of animal products undergo thermal treatment that leads to water loss, fat degradation, and protein denaturation, as well as an altered pH, which helps change drug residue quantity and chemical structure and, hence, the pharmacological and toxicological effects. For instance, heating milk via pasteurization, ultra-heat treatment, or sterilization, helps decrease drug residues in milk. The UHT, was shown to decrease oxytetracycline and tetracycline concentrations by >40% and 30%, respectively, and the sterilization process degraded tetracycline in milk by approximately 98%. Furthermore, thermal treatment degrades macrolides in milk by approximately 93% and is mostly responsible for erythromycin susceptibility. A majority of amino glycosides are very unstable in milk, when boiled at 120℃ for 20 min, leading to elimination of approximately 95% amino glycoside residues. During yoghurt production by heat treatment, precipitated proteins promote reduction of penicillin residues, and lactic acid slightly helps degrade cloxacillin, oxacillin, dicloxacillin, and nafcillin. Furthermore, yogurt cultures and low pH affect the decrease in drug residue concentration by occlusion in the coagulated protein matrix, decomposition, adsorption, and covalent binding to the proteins. During lactic acid-induced milk coagulation, penillic acid concentration was shown to increase to 60%–90% and the residues comprised intact penicillin and penillic acid. At lower pH values further degradation occurred and unidentified products were observed after totaling penicillin G and penillic acid. It was also reported that heat treatment (pasteurization and sterilization) and fermentation helped to decrease organophosphorus pesticide residues in yoghurt. Pasteurization helped to degrade pesticide dimethoate by as much as 73.42%, and, by fermentation, dimethoate and Malathion concentrations decreased by 86.50% and 97.17%, respectively.
Reduction of Residues in Eggs
When drugs are administered to laying hens, their metabolites may accumulate as residues in egg components. These drugs are absorbed in the intestine, carried through blood/plasma to the ovary, and deposited in the inner yolk to the magnum of the oviduct for accumulation in the albumen, uterus, and the oviduct; and finally, during plumping of the eggs, drug residues are accumulated in the eggs. Drugs that quickly disappear from the body of the laying hen are also excreted rapidly from the egg component a few days post withdrawal or treatment termination. Moreover, the biological half-life of the used drug is essential for drug residue clearance from egg components. Raw eggs are usually not consumed, unless refrigerated and subjected to heat. Heat treatment promotes dehydration, protein denaturation, and pH changes that can help reduce residue quantity, chemical formulation, as well as alter residue solubility. Egg refrigeration and storage also contributes to reducing antimicrobial residues in eggs. For instance, enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin in eggs showed instability as refrigeration time increased, resulting in a 44%–50% reduction after 4 weeks of storage. Eggs refrigerated at 10℃ for 4 weeks led to a decrease in the concentration of sulfanilamide and chlortetracycline residues by 44%–49% and 20%–22%, respectively. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins and zearalenone are carried over in eggs; prolonged exposure in laying hens may result in residue deposition in eggs. However, heating milk and dairy products with this quantity of aflatoxins M1 is obscure, and some treatments such as pasteurization and sterilization have very little effects on their concentration in the processed animal product. Conversely, milk processing such as evaporation, concentration, or drying, largely affects AFM1 concentration.
Reduction of Residues in Meat
Uncontrolled usage of veterinary drugs and poor biosafety measures for drug withdrawal may result in drug residues, as well as decrease meat quality. A majority of meat and meat products may not be an obvious part of the human food chain but are frequently stored or processed. Before consuming raw edible animal products and byproducts, some heat treatment or cooking is required. These processes lead to protein denaturation, water and fat loss, and change in the pH, thus, helps in altering residue concentration, chemical structure, or solubility. Doxycycline residue concentrations have been shown to reduce after meat cooking, and residues were excreted from muscle tissues into cooking fluid. The biological activity of oxytetracycline, ampicillin, and chloramphenicol in beef also decreased by 12% to 50% after roasting at 50℃–90℃ for 20 min. Moreover, beef cooking contributed to a substantial decrease in oxytetracycline net concentration. Different cooking methods with different pH levels have a potential reduction effect on oxytetracycline. For instance, the muscle concentration of oxytetracycline was significantly reduced after roasting and boiling by 53.6% and 69.6%, respectively, and roasting, microwaving, and boiling at pH 6.0 and 7.2, decreased oxytetracycline levels by 34.3%, 53.2%, and 67.7%, respectively. Chemical and biological degradation occur during fermentation, and help decrease pesticide levels significantly. For instance, the pesticide residues of DDT and lindane were reduced by approximately 10% and 18%, respectively, 72 h post-fermentation in fermented sausage. However, thermal treatment also helped to reduce antihelmintic residues: nitroxynil, by 78% and 96% in fried and roasted muscle; levamisole, by 11% and 42% in fried muscle and liver; rafoxanide, by 17% and 18% in fried and roasted muscle; and triclabendazole, by 23% and 47% in fried liver and roasted muscle, respectively.
Conclusion
The use of veterinary drugs for disease prevention or treatment and/or production enhancement, leads to residue accumulation in animal products. Drug residues in animal products are influenced by many factors such as the physicochemical properties of drugs, biological processes of animals, and their products. These residues can cause significant public health hazards such as hypersensitivity reactions, cancer, mutagenicity, reproduction challenges, bacterial resistance, and disruption of intestinal normal flora. Therefore, it is the responsibility of veterinarians and livestock producers to observe the relevant drug withdrawal period before animal slaughter and ensure that undesirable residues do not accumulate in edible products. Veterinarians should be updated with the latest information, to create awareness among producers and employees, as well as the general public. Moreover, avoiding unapproved or illegal drugs and practicing proper drug use and best farm and livestock management can lead to the control of drug residues. Moreover, different cooking conditions, fermentation, and pH, play a major role in decreasing veterinary drug residues. Generally, cooking and other processes do not ensure full drug residue degradation, but can contribute to a marked decrease in concentration. Although some veterinary drug residues are reduced and degraded by processing.
https://actascientific.com/ASVS/pdf/ASVS-02-0106.pdf
