ROLE OF MACRO AND MICRO MINERALS IN IMPROVING REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE
Submitted by:-
Dr. Dinesh Thakur, M.V.Sc. (Animal Nutrition) , Veterinary Assistant Surgeon (VAS)
Department of Animal Husbandry M.P.
INTRODUCTION
Minerals
Minerals are important for all physiological processes in animals including reproduction (Elord et al.,1993). Mineral deficiencies and imbalances are often cited as causes of poor reproduction. It is clear that adequate amounts of minerals must be provided, but little is known about the effects of marginal deficiencies and imbalances. The same is true of excessive intakes of minerals which may indeed be harmful. Producers should avoid overfeeding minerals. If a little bit is enough, twice as much will not be better and may in fact cause problems (Schweigert et al.,1998).
An important concept surrounding macromineral balance is dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD). DCAD measures the level of four macrominerals: sodium and potassium, which are cations and carry a positive charge, and chloride and sulfur, which are anions and carry a negative charge. The equation for calculating DCAD balance is:
(Sodium + potassium) – (chloride + sulfur) = DCAD in mEq/100g of ration dry matter
Research shows that a negative DCAD prior to calving helps cows successfully join the milking string, decreasing the incidence of metabolic disorders postpartum and increasing early lactation production. By helping cows mitigate the challenges of the transition period, a negative DCAD helps maintain reproductive integrity for future lactation (Cromwell et al.,1997).
The relationship between nutrition and reproduction is a topic of increasing importance and concern among dairy producers, veterinarians, feed dealers and extension workers. The interaction between nutrition and reproduction has long been known to have important implications for the reproductive performance (Smith et al.,2010). Under nutrition results in the loss of body weight and body condition, delays the onset of puberty, increases the post-partum interval to conception, interferes with normal ovarian cyclicity by decreasing gonadotropin secretion and increases infertility (Boland et al.,2001). A more complete understanding of how and when nutrition affects reproduction may provide an alternative approach to managing reproduction in commercial systems that do not depend on the use of exogenous hormone (Pradhan et al.,2003).
Macro Minerals
Phosphorus (P)
There has been much debate and research conducted on phosphorus supplementation effects on reproductive function (Elord et al.,1993). Decreased fertility rate, feed intake, milk production, decreased ovarian activity, irregular estrous cycles, increased occurrence of cystic
ovaries, delayed sexual maturity and low conception rates have been reported when phosphorus intakes are low (Cromwell et al.,1997). In a field study when heifers received only 70-80% of their phosphorus requirements and serum phosphorus levels were low, fertility was impaired (3.7 services per conception). Services per conception were reduced to 1.3 after adequate phosphorus was supplemented. In another experiment, increasing phosphorus supplementation from 0.4% to 0.6% of the ration had no effect on days to first estrus or services per conception. However, in some instances, responses have been reported in the field when phosphorus supplementation was increased to 0.5% or 0.6%. The reason for these differences in response is unclear, but may be related to the availability of the phosphorus that is added to the ration or the actual amount of phosphorus consumed. Caution should be used to not overfeed phosphorus – it is costly, of potential environmental concern, and does not positively influence reproduction in beef (Duffy et al.,1977) or dairy cattle (Lammoglia et al.,1997). The ration containing 0.45 to 0.50 percent phosphorus on dry matter basis should be provided to high producing cows (Schweigert et al.,1998).
Calcium (Ca)
Most experimental work relating calcium to reproduction has centered on the effect of the calcium: phosphorus ratio. Controlled experiments demonstrated no effect of altered ratios on reproduction in heifers or lactating cows. Ratios (Ca:P) between 1.5:1 and 2.5:1 for lactating cows should not result in problems. Milking cows should always be provided adequate amounts of calcium to maximize production and minimize health problems. One of the functions of calcium is to allow the muscle contraction. Clearly a reduction in muscle contractility will lead to a decrease in dry matter intake (DMI) as rumen function decreases, leading to severe Negative energy balance (NEB).
As consequences, there is an increase in fat mobilization that may result in fatty liver syndrome and ketosis. An excess of ketone bodies can further suppress appetite (Boland et al.,2001), it has been shown that plasma calcium concentration of 5mg/ml reduce abomasal motility by 70% and the strength of the contraction by 50% (9). Low calcium concentrations also prevent insulin production, further exacerbating this situation (Goff et al.,1999). Ultimately, milk yield will be reduced and fertility will suffer. Muscle tone in the uterus will also be adversely affected with cows experiencing prolonged calving and retained placenta. Uterine involution may also be impaired giving rise to fertility problems. A major concern in the mineral feeding of dry cows relates to providing optimum levels of calcium and phosphorus in order to decrease the occurrence of milk fever. The ration containing 0.75 to 0.80 percent calcium on dry matter basis should be provided to high producing cows. Increase calcium to 0.9 to 1.0 percent and magnesium from 0.25 to 0.30 percent when feeding supplemental fat (Schweigert et al.,1988).
Magnesium:
Magnesium usually does not have any direct impact on the reproductive status of animals, since in body it remains in almost antagonistic relation with Ca and any disturbance in Ca-P-Mg homeostasis can impart some influence on reproduction. Moreover reduced reproductive efficiency can been countered following general loss of appetite due to Mg deficiency (Satish Kumar, 2003).
Potassium:
Limited research suggests that feeding high levels of Potassium may delay the onset of puberty, delayed ovulation, impaired corpus luteum development and increase the incidence of anestrous in heifers .(Smith and Chase, 2010) reports lower fertility in cows fed with high levels of K or diets in which the K-Na ratio was too wide.
Sulfur: Sulfur aids in protein and nitrogen utilization in cows. A sulfur deficiency can reduce feed intake, lower gains, decrease digestibility and reduce milk production. It is important in close up dry cow rations to help prevent milk fever.
Sodium Chloride (salt):
Salt deficiencies can affect the efficiency of digestion and indirectly the reproduction performance of cows (Keen and Zidenberg, 1990).
Sodium chloride helps maintain body fluid balance and is a controlling factor in nerve transmission. Supplementation of salt is especially important under heat stress conditions. Signs of deficiency include a craving for salt, lack of appetite, poor growth, haggard appearance, rough hair coat and decreased milk production.
Micro Minerals
Introduction
Dairy animals most commonly suffer with the nutritional deficiencies due high production and deficient feeding ultimately leading to poor ruminants are discussed. Reproductive performance. Micro minerals are very essential part of animal’s ration which is required only micro amount and excess feeding of some of these may show toxicity symptoms. For optimum reproductive performance in farm animals, twenty two such elements have been identified. The important one includes copper, cobalt, manganese, selenium iodine, iron, chromium and molybdenum where as others are of less practical value.
Micro minerals are involved in several biological processes, such as component of metallo. enzymes and enzyme co factors. These works both as activator of enzymes involved in intracellular detoxification mechanism of free radicals and in stabilization of secondary molecules. Some of these .re component of hormones and thus directly regulates endocrine activities. Due to its involvement in carbohydrate , protein and nucleic acid metabolism, metablism any change in its level may alter the production of reproductive and other hormones. Its improper level may affect embryonic development, post-partum recovery activities and over all fertility of animal may be impaired spermatogenesis and reduce libido. Most of the non conventional feeds are deficient in micro minerals and are likely to accentuate reproductive problems (Parnekar, 2003).In the present paper the importance of microminerals in the reproductive health of ruminants are discussed.
Copper: Copper is a vital component in many enzyme systems as cofactors. Cytochrome oxidase is a cupro enzyme necessary for electron transport in mitochondria for energy metabolism of ATP dependent biosynthetic reactions . It is required in the body for the production of red blood cells, as it is essential for absorption and transport of iron necessary for haemoglobin synthesis (Tuormaa, 2000). Cu is necessary for production of melanin pigment and interaction of copper and estrogen are also observed (Hidiroglou., et al 1979). Cu deficiency is associated with high Molybdenum levels as crops grown on ‘tert soils’ (having high organic matter) have high Mo and low Cu. Mo and Cu interctions further lowers available Cu for absorption.
The important sign related to reproduction in cattle is decline in fertility. Changes in steroidal metabolism may lead to alter reproductive behaviour; such as nymphomania in ewe (Hidiroglou., et al 1979).Copper along with Cobalt deficiency delayed onset of puberty, repeat breeding, low conception, early embryonic mortality and increased incidence of retention of placenta (Nix, 2002). Reproduction is hampered in a manner of depressed oestrus associated
with anemia and increased days open due to inactive ovaries. Low fertility associate with delayed or depressed oestrus have been reported in cattle graze on copper deficient pastures (Kreplin et al., 1992). In males, copper deficiency leads to decreased libido, lower semen quality, and severe damage of testicular tissue may render the bull sterile (Kreplin, 1992, Nix, 2002).
Selenium: Selenium along with Vitamin E function as preventive and chain breaking anti oxidant, and inactivates peroxidise formed during cell metabolic process. (Hine, 1992). Commonly recorded selenium responsive reproductive disorders of cattle are retained placenta, abortion, still birth, irregular estrous cycle, early embryonic mortality, cystic ovaries, mastitis and metritis which can be reduced by supplementation of selenium (Randhawa and Randhawa, 1994,). In sub clinical selenium deficiency, reproductive performance may be reduced with increased number of services needed per conception, high incidence of mastitis and a retained fetal membrane and this may be explained due to impaired functioning of neutrofils in selenium deficiency (Goff, 2005). Selenium’ beneficial effects of decreasing reproductive problems in dairy animals have been associated with increased glutathione peroxidise activity in blood and tissues. Selenium is readily transmissible through placenta to the foetus whether fedas inorganic or as an organic food Selenium.
Improvement in conception rate at first service following selenium supplementation has been reported (McClure et al., 1986). Prepartum injections of Se for 3 weeks decrease the incidence of retained placenta in Se-deficient animals. However neither vitamin E nor Se was effective alone. Harrison et al.,1984) also recorded that the incidence of cystic ovaries and metritis was significantly reduced in Se administered group as compared to untreated controls .In contrast (Hidiroglou et al., 1979) studied on the effect of Se given to ewe and cattle in Se deficient areas and .reported no significant influence on rate of ovulation, conception and embryonic loss.
The testes contain high concentration of of selenium that is essential for testicular function. Low sperm production and poor sperm quality including testicular size, lack of libido and can adversely affect impaired motility with flagella defects localized primarily to the mid piece has been a consistent feature in selenium deficient animals. Se supplementation in cattle has been found beneficial in maintaining sperm motility. The percent mobility increased significantly as dietary Se was increased from 0 to 1.0 ppm
Manganese: The precise pathway of specific Mn involvement in reproductive processes remain unknown, some evidence suggests that Mn plays a role in the activity of certain endocrine organs. It is involved as co factor in cholesterol synthesis which is necessary for the synthesis of steroids like progesterone, estrogen and testosterone (Keen and1994).
Deficiency cause poor fertility problem in both male and female.Wilson (1966) suggested that Mn deficiency was dependent on conditioning factors especially the calcium and phosphorus content of the ration. The principal disorder of Mn deficiency is infertility, congenital limb deformity and poor growth rate in calves. Deficiency of Mn. may be associated with suppression of estrus, silent estrus, irregular estrous cycle, cystic ovary, poor follicular developments with delayed ovulation, increase in embryonic mortality and reduced conception rate (Kreplin, 1992 and Corrah,1996). Even Mn deficient goats were observed to exhibit no apparent sign of estrous despite normal ovulation (Groppel and Anke, 1971). Mangnese the supplementation has proven to be effective in shortening the postpartum anoestrus and increasing conception rates in dairy cows (Krolak, 1968). In males the dietary deficiencies of Mn, leads to absences of libido, decreased motility of spermatozoa and reduced number of sperms in ejaculate (Satish Kumar, 2003).
Zinc: Zn deficiencies have been associated with abortion, fetal mummification, lower birth weight and prolonged labour as Zn plays important role in uterine lining (Nix, 2002). The effect on prostaglandin synthesis suggests that Zn deficiency have profound effect on reproductive cycle and pregnancy. Delayed puberty and lower conception rates, failure of implantation and reduction of litter size are also found in association with the zinc deficiency in feed (Kreplin ovaries and metritis was significantly reduced in Se ,1992). Zinc has a significant role in repair maintenance of uterine lining following parturition and early return of post partum estrus (Green et al.,1998). Zn deficient animals have been shown to have lower concentrations of FSH and LH chiefly in males (Boland, 2003). Zinc deficiency in male cause atrophy of semeniferous tubule and inefficient testicular development in young ones, leading to reduced testicular size, lack of libido and can adversely affect spermatogenesis (Mass, 1987, Satish Kumar, 2003).
Iodine: It is normally present in the diet as iodide and is necessary for syntheses of thyroid hormone, which regulates energy metabolism. Iodine is important for the development of fetus and maintenance of general basal metabolic rate. The thyroid gland is involved in stimulation of anterior pituitary gonadotrophin secretion. The effect of iodine on secretion of thyrotropin- releasing factor, which in turn stimulates prolactin secretion, can also have effect on length of estrus cycle (Khillare, et al., 2007). The reproductive disorders due to iodine deficiency are thought to be steroid dysfunction. Iodine deficiency may cause the birth of weak, premature or dead calves affected with goitre. Iodine deficiency in herds, leads to impaired fertility and an abnormally high abortion rate (Hetzel, 1990). Incidence of retained placenta and post partum genital infections is also high (Hemken, .1960). There is a significant relation between serum protein bound iodine (PBI) and reproduction. Improved reproductive performance was associated with higher PBI and number of services required as well as time interval between first breeding and conception. Sub normal serum protein bound Iodine (PBI) has been found to be associated with infertility in cows and buffalo (Dabas et al., 1987).
Anovulatory estrus observed in cows maintained on iodine deficient diet was attributed to disorder of the thyroid and pituitary function which was reversed by supplementation of iodine to the ration. Recently plasma inorganic iodine (PII) has been found to give an accurate indication of current iodine status. Normal plasma inorganic iodine in cows should be 100-300ng/ml.
Chromium: Naturally occurring chromium is crucial for carbohydrate metabolism (Tuormaa, 2000). It is present in high concentration in nuclear proteins thus it is necessary for gametogenisis and healthy fetal growth. Chromium plays an important role in the secretion of pregnancy specific proteins from the uterine endometrium which is helpful in preventing early embryonic death. Chromium exerts a significant influence on follicular maturation and LH release. It can possibly lead to lower sperm count and decreased fertility and influences foetal growth and development (Tuormaa, 2000).
Iron: It is required for the synthesis of haemoglobin and myoglobin as well as many enzymes and cytochrome enzymes of electron transport chain. Iron functions in transport of oxygen to tissues, maintenance of oxidative enzyme system and is concerned with ferretin formation (Khillare, et al .,2007).
Deficiency in adult animals is rare due to its ubiquitous presence in the feed stuffs. The reproductive performance of Iron deficient animals may be badly affected due to anaemia, reduced appetite and lower body condition. A deficient animal becomes repeat breeders and require increased number of inseminations per conception and occasionally may abort.
Molybdenum: Mo is interdependent with Cu with reference to body system of ruminants. Generally lower level of one occurs in presence toxic level of another. Therefore proper balance of Cu and Mo in soil and plant is essential for normal absorption of each other in ruminents (Randhawa and Randhawa, 1994). Molybdenum deficiency decreases libido, reduced spermatogenesis and causes sterility in males and is responsible for delayed puberty, reduced conception rate and anoestrus in females (Satish Kumar, 2003).
Cobalt: Cobalt is an important component of vitamin B12. Approximately 4.5% of molecular weight of vitaminB12 (cynocobalamin) is composed of elemental cobalt. The need of cobalt for thymine synthesis, which is required for DNA synthesis, explains the biological role of cobalt for cell division, growth and reproduction.
Infertility is likely to arise as a secondary consequence of debilitating condition such as severe cobalt deprivation (Judson et al., 1997). Sign of cobalt deficiency include delayed uterine involution, irregular estrous cycle and decreased conception rate (Pulls, 1994, Satish Kumar, 2003). Dietary cobalt requirement for lactating cow is 0.1 ppm of the ration dry matter intake.
Impact of trace minerals deficiency on ruminant reproduction
| Minerals | Direct | Indirect |
| Zinc | -reduced conception rate
-atrophy in male reproductive tissue and glands -increase in retained placentas -inhibition of spermatozoa maturation |
-mild to severe claw problems
-suboptimal skeletal growth and weight gain -poor feed utilization and efficiency -low quality milk and high somatic cell count -slow wound healing and rough hair coat |
| Mangaese | -suppression of estrus or silent heats
-inhibition male libido and reduction of spermatozoa -delayed ovulation -increased incidence of abortion -delayed opening of the vaginal orifice -light birth weights with infant mortality -reduction of conception rate |
-poor skeletal development
-weak and poor condition of legs and joints |
| Copper | -inhibited conception
-early embryonic death -increase in retained placentas -subestrus -necrosis of the placenta -central nervous system abnormalities in the offspring |
-retarded growth
-poor hair coat reddish in color -skeletal changes -anemia |
| Cobalt | -reduced fertility
-increased calf mortality -depressed milk and colostrum yield and quality |
-depressed appetite
-poor fiber digestion -weight loss -poor growth |
| Selenium | -decreased fetal development and early calf mortality
-decreased milk and colostrum quality and volume -decreased spermatogenesis -embryonic degeneration and fetal resorption -retained placentas and poor uterine involution |
-decreased mobility with claw (hoof) problems
-reduced vitamin E metabolism and immune stasus -poor conception -poor growth and hair coat |
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