Ship of the Mountains:Yak (Poephagus grunniens) Rearing Practices in North Eastern Hill Region of India

November 4, 2022

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Ship of the Mountains:Yak (Poephagus grunniens) Rearing Practices in North Eastern Hill Region of India

Yaks (Bos grunniens), found throughout the Himalayan region of south Central Asia, the Tibetan plateau and Mongolia, are herd animals with a longhair humped. The Yak belongs to the Class Mammalia of the phylum Chordata under the genus ‘Bos’, Therefore, it is closely related to cattle and is commonly interbreed. Wild yaks stand about two meters tall at the shoulder. Domestic yaks are about half that height. Both types have long shaggy hair to insulate them from the cold. Wild yaks can be either brown or black. Domesticated ones can also be white. Domesticated yaks are kept primarily for their milk and meat. They are also used as beasts of burden, transporting goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders as well as in support of climbing and trekking expeditions. Often the pack animals are actually crossbreeds of the yak and Bos taurus (common domestic cattle). These are known in Tibetan as dzo or dzopkyo.

Arunachal Pradesh is that the largest in area among North – Eastern states and is that the second largest forest-covered state next to Madhya Pradesh within the country. It is bounded on north long international border with Bhutan to the west (160km), China to the north and north-east (1,080 km) and Myanmar to the east (440km) on the south by the state of Assam and on the east by Nagaland. Tawang is a land of Monpa tribes, is a small district blessed with breath- taking natural beauty. Tawang is situated is the north-western extremity of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Brokpa, the nomadic herders they live during the harsh winters, in the lower regions, and in summer they migrate to higher altitudes moving between 9,000 and 15,000 feet. All Brokpas have links with agricultural communities (ungpa) at lower elevations to offer them with grain in exchange for livestock products. And they all raise the same type of animals: yaks, yak-cattle hybrids and sheep. They also share a similar language which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of languages and culture; across the region, they can usually communicate with each other in Tibetan, even though their local dialects differ. The Brokpas are all ardent believers of Buddhist practices and their religious and cultural practices are also similar [8]. Yak farming is a sustainable enterprise and sustains the livelihood of rural communities in the high Himalayan Mountains. The yak (Bos grunniens) may be a unique and multi-purpose animal of high mountain areas of Himalayas. As per livestock census 2019 that yak population in Arunachal Pradesh has jumped to 24,075 in 2019 from 14,061 in 2012, an increase of 71.22% [1]. In Arunachal Pradesh, yaks are mainly found in West Kameng and Tawang districts. Unique Arunachali Yak breed reared by Monpa community for milk, meat, fibre, transportation and manure. The Monpas who are inhibiting within the highland of those two districts are mainly trusted livestock for his or her livelihood and it’s also reported that 62 per cent of their livelihood requirements is fulfilled by yak (Poephagus grunniens L.) Present study has been undertaken to address yak rearing practices by (Brokpa) Pastoralist of Tawang Arunachal Pradesh.

Yak (Poephagus grunniens L.) is a unique bovine species of economical importance in the high hill and snowbound areas and had originated from the cold regions of Tibet. Yak is the only large hairy multipurpose bovid and a unique genetic resource with an amazing ability to survive, reproduce, and provide marketable products to the highlanders. The yaks are reared under the free-range system in the high hills where the air, water, and pasture are free from any pollution, and their products are organic and just natural. The yaks are reared under a free-range system and are found in alpine and sub-alpine regions usually between 3000 to 4500 m above mean sea level (MSL) with a cold, semi-humid climate and even at 6000 m MSL in India. The world population of domestic yaks is about 14.2 million, of which about 94 percent (13.3 million) are in China. In India, there are around 58,000 yaks. West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh have around 24,000 yaks.
Traditional knowledge or practices refers to the unique local knowledge or practice existing within and developed around the specific condition to a particular geographical area that is unique to a given culture or society. It is the basis for local-level decision making, healthcare, food security, education, natural resource management, and a host of their activities in their community. A distinctive feature of traditional knowledge is that it comprehends continuities within the diverse landscapes and vegetation and that it manipulates these micro-sites in production. Thus, yak rearers know their animal and the interaction in the environment in which they rear. The importance of yak rearing community’s knowledge for traditional breeding, conservation of local breeds, and use of ethnoveterinary practices depend on the self–organizing capacity of the pastoral systems, based on the institutional adaptability of the pastoralists and the ecological resilience of the used as fodder, for healthcare and increasing productivity of yak.
Yak production and management system varied due to several factors like region, religion, custom, govt policies, climate, topography, the health of the natural pastures, marketing facilities, etc. During the study in Arunachal Pradesh, a lot of variations of existing yak management practices by Brokpa Yak Herders were observed and documented. These observations are as follows;
Herd Composition
Existing yak herds were composed of milch yak, dry yak, calves, bull, yak-cattle hybrid. Generally, female yak is called Bree and male yak is called Yak. The male of the yak-cattle hybrid is popularly known as Dzo whereas the female is Dzomo. Herd size was varied from 10 to 60 in Arunachal Pradesh. As yak is the symbol of status and wealth, so, yak owners were mostly interested in quantity not in quality. The male-female ratio of the yak herd is also not maintained in this region. In Arunachal Pradesh, it was 1:1.36. Brokpas collect 50 – 60 yaks from different owners to look after and in each group, 3-4 yak herdsmen were there with a total of 250-300 yak.
Seasonal Migration and Grazing Pattern
Traditionally yaks are reared under a semi-migratory free-ranged system and totally depend on the pasture grasses. Yak herders are always in search of better pastures. Generally, they followed two pasture utilization strategies i.e. summer and winter pasture. During summer, they took yak to a higher altitude of 4000 meters above mean sea level (MSL) and higher. During winter they utilized lower altitude (3000 m MSL) and some time they leave their animal into the forest land for grazing. Grazing in summer pasture is from May to September, and they start down migration in October. From October to the first week of December they utilize pastures of their migratory root and stayed different pastures for one week to a fortnight. Herders reached near their village in the middle of December and utilize these lower altitudes up to February. Again they start for up migration in the first week of March and on the way to summer grazing they utilize transit pasture as they used it during down migration. In their traditional migration calendar, it is so planed that they always get green grasses and natural hay throughout the year.
Year-Round Activities of Herders
Year-round activities of yak herder mainly depend on the availability of green forage grasses and climatic conditions. There is a close relationship between the seasonal migration and round the year activities of yak herder. Yak herdsmen used to divide a year into four parts viz. spring, summer, autumn, and winter. During the summer from July to September, yak herdsmen stayed at alpine pasture at an altitude of 4,000 to 4500 meters above MSL and it is the productive season of yak husbandry as the availability of fresh green grasses are adequate. Maximum calving takes place in this season and they start for the preparation of milk products. In the second half of this season, breeding of yak is started due to the good health condition. During the autumn season, middle of September to December, yak herdsmen start down migration and utilize the green grasses of the mid-altitude. Yaks are still productive and the preparation of milk products continued. In this season yak mixed with local cattle and suffered from various infectious diseases. They finally reached to lower altitude of 3000 meters to 3500 meters and start winter grazing. During the winter season, they stop milking and left the animal to the nearby forest. Once a week, they offered salt to their animal throughout the season. Sometimes they collect tree fodder and fed to milch Dzomo. The death of animals was also noticed due to starvation in this season. In March when the climate of lower altitude changed towards summer, then, they start for up migration for the searching cold weather. It is the starting of the calving period and the milking of animals is initiated. Body condition improves due to the availability of grass on the transit route.
Calf Rearing Practices
Calving of yak took place mainly from May to September and maximum calving was observed during July. Generally, it is noticed that birth weight is maximum in June and declines thereafter. Weaning is not practiced in field conditions. Yak herder used to milk their animal in the early morning and evening. So, they separate calves from them during the night and afternoon. Milk replacer (liquid nutrition having nutritional qualities comparable to mother’s milk that is given to young animals when mother’s milk is not available) and calf starter (transition feed for a calf from the milk–feeding period to the dry feeding period) was not practiced. Calves were allowed to take all the available milk for up to one month. Yak herder did not practice proper calf management practices like deworming, vaccination, etc.
Milking of the Yak and Yak-Cattle Hybrid
Though yak is a multipurpose bovid providing milk, meat, hair fiber and have a use as a draught animal, but, milk is the most important output from yak husbandry as other products are limited due to several reasons like the banning of slaughter in Tawang. Generally, yaks are milked at one time during the early morning but during the peak production period, two times milking is followed during early morning and evening. Dzomo is milked twice in a day during the early morning and evening. Due to the short teat size, the stripping method (firmly holding the teat between the thumb and forefinger and drawing it down the length of the teat) of milking is generally followed among the yak herders. During milking, animals were provided locally concentrate mixture, the fermented product of maize, and local millet.
Shearing
Generally, yak produces two types of hair viz. course hair and fine hair. Coarse hair is the outer layer of the body and fine hair is the inner layer. Normally shedding is done once in a year in May or June. But the shedding of fine hair starts from May and continues up to July.
Traditional feeding Practices of Yak
Search for better pasture grasses is as important as the climate for seasonal migration of yak herds. During the summer and autumn season, yaks are allowed to consume green grasses as much as possible. High altitude pastures have a variety of low growing grasses, sedges, forbes, and bushes that are utilized by yaks and other domestic animals. Due to the availability of green pasture grasses, its growth stage, and high nutritive value, yak used to gain maximum bodyweight in this season. Scanty feed availability in the long winter period (November to March) is a major nutritional factor limiting the performance of yaks in terms of production and reproduction. Locally available alternate feed resources like tree fodder, agricultural by-products, and coarse roughages were utilizing by the yak herdsmen for feeding of their yak during peak winter. The important locally available tree fodder species commonly fed to yaks are phrengpa (Quercuswallichiana), sylui (Acer campellii), salyx (Salix humboldtiana), blemkar(Buddlejaasiatica), domkar (Symplocosracemosa), maar (Castanopsis sp.),zimbu (Ligustrummyrsinitis), karsingh (Acer hookeri), marma (Spirala sp), bamlakpa (Embeliarobusta), Domreb and bagar (Berberis sp). Locally available concentrate ingredients like maize and millet grains especially during pregnancy and lactation were provided, but it was rarely practiced. It was also found that in Sikkim during winter season some edible lichen-like Cladonia, Cetraria, and Usneapectinata are were provided to the animal with the forages grasses. This result was confirmed by the findings of the other researchers.
Traditional Breeding and Hybridization Practices
Generally, the breeding season of yak starts from June and continues up to September-October when an adequate amount of green grasses are available. Natural mating is the predominant practice of breeding. Traditionally yak put into the first service at the age of 32-42 months and gave their first calf at the age of 42 – 52 months. Under traditional practices, yak gives 2 birth every three to three and a half years. Body confirmation gets as much as important as age in the selection of breeding bull and first service to the female yak by the yak herder. Exchange of breeding bull among the herders is a common practice. Yak herder used to prefer to cross their animal with the bull of Luguthang and Marek Shakten area of West Kameng districts as the herders believe that bulls of these areas are of superior quality.
Hybridization between yak and cattle is recorded from time immemorial. Species hybridization between male hill cattle and female yaks is common in Arunachal Pradesh. The opposite cross is also practiced by the yak herder. F1 (first generation hybrid) males are known as Dzo and females as Dzomo in most parts of the yak-breeding tract. Yak herders practice inter-species breeding for better production as Dzomo is known for its better production and adaptation at a lower altitude. Sometimes, it is considered that Dzo is a more efficient pack/draught animal than male yak at a lower altitude. F1 hybrids are more productive than their parents. However, subsequent generations are less productive and uneconomical. Interestingly, yak herders reported that male offspring (Dzo) of interspecies crossing are always sterile and they use it only for draught purpose.
Production Performance
All lactating yaks, irrespective of age, parity or breed, type, and even location, attained peak yield during July and August when the green grass was at its best in terms of quality and quantity. Quantity, growth status, and nutritive value of herbage are affected by climatic and season in yak-rearing areas. It was observed that milk yield ranged from 150 to 500 kg in lactation of 150 to 300 days, meat yield from 110 to 250 kg, coarse hair yield from 2.5 to 6.5 kg per year, and fine hair from 300 gm to 700 gm. Under traditional rearing practices, the inter-calving period is 16-24 months. The majority of the North-Eastern yaks suffer from various reproductive problems like late maturity, long calving interval, and poor estrus expressivity, seasonality of estrus, repeat breeding, still-birth, abortion, and inbreeding.
Traditional Yak Products
Yak is a multipurpose animal producing milk, meat, hair fiber, used as a draught animal, and due to its multipurpose utility, yak popularly known as ‘Coconut of Animal’. The entire yak products are just organic in nature by default. Generally, yak herders are not consuming milk as such. They consumed it after processed into ghee or Churpi (a wet cheese made from fermented yak milk). They prepared, stored, sale both the products in their traditional way. Churpi is a delicious item made from yak milk by traditional method in an indigenous cylindrical churner made of wood and bamboo strips. According to yak herders’ perception, yak meat is very delicious. In Tawang, slaughtering of the yak is banned but during festival season (like Loshar – new year festival, before winter) yaks are slaughtered in a specified place on a pre-fixed date. However, in West Kameng yaks are slaughtered during different occasions throughout the year. Yak milk and meat are only the sources of protein of highlanders who have little access to modern life. Herdsmen cut yak meat into long narrow strips (approximately, 4-5 cm wide and 30 cm long) and dry these suspended from a woven-hair rope. These can be kept for 1-2 years either hung or in hide bags. Previously it was reported about sausage, prepared from yak meat by incorporating pork and fat (in the ratio of yak meat 60 percent, pork 20 percent, and pork fat 20 percent). Income to the yak rearer from raw yak hair and down the fiber is very low as compared to milk and meat products. Traditionally, hairs are used for making ropes, caps, blankets, bags, and tents for daily used by herdsmen in all the yak rearing tracks of the North-East region.
Changes in Rearing Practices and its Future
Nowadays, yak herders are forced to migrate to a higher altitude in search of a congenial environment for a yak to maintain its productivity due to warming Himalaya. But, these high altitude pastures are devoid of basic amenities like transport, electric, healthcare, market, etc. Whereas, mid-altitude pastures are full of these basic amenities but underutilized, because, it is too high for cattle and too low for yak. Therefore, due to their easy adaptability at mid-altitude, species hybridization between yak and hill cattle is getting more importance among the yak herders. Brokpas recalled that yak-cattle hybridization is a common practice for them, but, this practice gets momentum during the last one or two decades, and changing climatic scenario is mainly responsible for this. A close relationship between the seasonal migration and round the year activities of yak herder was observed. The availability of green forage grasses and climatic conditions were determining factors of migration.
Brokpas revealed that 10-15 years back, they used to start upward migration in May – June. They also revealed that during the last 10-15 yrs, the winter period had shortened and the temperature during the mid of March is not at all congenial for yak. Therefore, they were forced to start upward migration during the last week of February to mid of March.?
It is already mentioned that Brokpa pastoral nomads are forced to migrate to a higher altitude. Therefore, previously used transit pastures are presently using as winter halt. Pastures of near to 2500 m above MSL are presently using as transit. Brokpa pastoral nomads opined that these pastures were used as the summer halt before 10-15 yrs. Pastures are the lifeline of the livelihood of the Brokpa pastoral nomads. At the same time, they perceived that the quality of the pastures is degrading day by day. They also perceived that rejuvenation of degraded pastures is an urgent need for their sustainable livelihood security. Therefore, yak herders in collaboration with National Research Centre on Yak have started rejuvenation of degraded high-altitude pastures by introducing new species of grasses like Dactylus glomerata L, Lolium perenne L, Setaria sphacelata, Festuca arundinacea and legumes like Trifloium repens L. and Trifolium pratense. Degraded high altitude pastures are the cause of reduced availability of feed and fodder. Therefore, The Brokpa pastoral nomads are nowadays offering feed supplementation to their animals for better productivity. Locally available feed resources like maize crushed are being used as supplementation. They are providing feed supplementation mainly in the winter season when adequate grass is not available. Few Brokpa pastoral nomads also adopted the Complete Feed Blocks (CFB) prepared by the National Research Centre on Yak during the winter season to maintain the body weight and productivity of their animal.
Brokpas were solely depended on the traditional animal healthcare practices for their diseased animal. Nowadays, They prefer mid-altitude pastures, where yaks are mixed with local cattle, and as a result yaks and cattle suffer from various infectious diseases like foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), brucellosis, haemorrhagic septicemia (HS), chlamydiosis, salmonellosis and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR). Their own traditional knowledge is not so much successful to control these diseases. Therefore, they are adopting modern health care practices like vaccination, etc. to protect their herd from fatal diseases and to maintain proper production and productivity. The transhumance system of livestock rearing is considered difficult, tough, and devoid of modern amenities. Therefore, the younger generations of yak herdsmen are now not willing to continue with the age-old yak rearing as their profession. Therefore, the Brokpa pastoral nomads adopted several subsidiary income-generating activities like collection of star fruit from the forest, a laborer of apple & kiwi orchard, and in Border Road Organisation, etc.
With more and more young Brokpa Herders opting for a sedentary lifestyle, their nomadic way of life is under threat. National Research Centre on Yak is trying to make the herders’ lives better thorough various innovations and technologies to improve the Yak husbandry practices, ultimately trying to conserve the “Ship of the Mountains” and its “Purveyors “, The Brokpas.

Yak husbandry in India———–

The yak-rearing states of India are Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The first three of these, bordering the southern slopes of the Himalayas, have a cold, humid climate, while the two northerly states are cold and arid. The total of about 51 000 yaks in 1997 represents a marked decline from the 132 000 yak reported for the year 1977 (Pal, 1993a). Gupta and Gupta (2000) published even lower numbers of around 40 000 for recent years. Reasons suggested for the decline is socio-economic and hybridization.

Yak types ————-

There are a number of different phenotypic types among Indian yak. The “common” yak resembles medium size hill cattle in conformation; “Bisonian” yak are bigger animals; “Bare-back” yak have a long body and little hair on their backs. Yak with a particularly hairy forehead, long-haired yak and white yak represent the fourth type described in more detail by Pal et al. (1994). It is not suggested that these types represent different breeds as such as they occur within the same districts or even within herds. Among the ten colour patterns noted for yak in India, the majority are black (29 percent) or black with white patches (40 percent). Some 15 percent are grey in colour and the remainder of the population is made up of small proportions of brown with white patches, pure white and various mixtures, including piebald and skewbald animals. Yaks engage in various activities in Indian and abroad Yaks are engaged in various activities in India and abroad. Yaks perform from carrying baggage in high altitude areas India to plough fields in Tibet. The wild yak is an endangered species. The National Research Centre on Yaks, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Arunachal Pradesh, has completed various research projects on Yak life history. Theses were Anatomy, Genetics, Nutrition, Physiology & Reproduction, Production & Management and Health. The centre has been focusing ahead in strengthening of the yak husbandry in the region.

Socio-Economic Status ———-

The pastoral nomad of the Monpa tribe is popularly known as Brokapa (tenant herdsmen) and transhumance system of livestock rearing is their main source of livelihood. The future of transhumant pastoralists depends on the way they will manage their stay and livestock in overstocking winter grazing land [22]. The family system is patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Adoption of son / daughter by childless couple or those who have not blessed with son is also prevalent in the society. Polyandrous marriage system is common among the Brokpa due to their hard economic nature of other people by paying different form of grazing fees like Lamrin, Purin, and Tsarin. The grazing grounds are mostly belonged to the community, clan, personnel and monastery. In case of community pasture, a particular revenue rate is priced by the village council (Mangma) which generally coincides with a ritual performed in respective village Gonpa. The fee which is paid in form of butter and cheese are usually donated to the Lamas (Monks/Buddhist priest) for use in the Gonpa of life. Diversity of this district is congenial for commercial cultivation of both tropical and temperate fruits, Orchid species, Potato, Ginger, Species, Medicinal and Aromatic plants etc [20]. They practice both permanent and shifting (Jhum) cultivation. Maize, paddy, millets, wheat, buckwheat, barley, soyabean, chilli, French bean, cabbage and potato are major crops grown by this tribe [2, 6]. The Monpas have generally three meals in a day, the first meal taken in the early morning before going out to the fields, forest or other business, While going to the forest fields, cooked items taken for lunch in a bamboo basket third meal is consumed at home in the evening [21]. The main food of Monpa is rice and millets. Monpas are traditionally dependent on nature and natural products for food and medicines.

Breed and Breeding ———–

In Arunachal Pradesh a unique yak breed named Arunachali found in West Kameng and Tawang districts. The phenotypic characteristics are coat colour is predominantly black with middle sized and compact body, Legs are short and stocky, and horizontal ear is typical characteristic of Arunachali Yak. Brisket, belly, ribs, lateral parts and legs were covered with long hair. Adult body weights ranges between 206 to 416 kg, males are massive and aggressive [19]. Milk has high fat content in milk up to 7.45%. Arunachali yak produces an average of 1.3 kg milk per day, which is comparatively poor quantity, but it is remunerated by high fat content for producing different milk product.

Yak Crosses and Hybrids Management —————-

Yak and its crossbreeding play an essential role in Brokpa’s livelihood not only as the food source but also as the material for cloth or religious tool, and bride-price. The “Yak Dance,” indicating the legend of introducing Yak into this region long time ago, and performed at “ Lossar Festival (Monpa’s New Year Festival)” in February, is also reflecting such an importance of Yak and its crossbreeding [28]. The problem of inbreeding has also affected the Brokpa yak herds Wakhan Corridor was closed, leaving no possibility for Wakhi and Kyrgyz herders to urge new yak germ plasm [32]. The wild ‘pure breed’ yak population, estimated at no quite 10,000 to 15,000 peoples, is now in China’s Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), where border control is strict and freecrossing of yaks and their herders from the surface area has been restricted. The closure of the ‘pure yak region’ in Tibet has given rise to a significant problem of inbreeding within the yak herds within the rest of the Himalayas. Past few decades, and the resultant practice of prolonged use of the same bull within herds,” are according to [32]. The hybrids are extensively used as milch animal. The history of crossing yak with local cattle dates back 3,000 years [30]. The genetic makeup of B. grunniens (60 chromosomes) is analogous thereto of B. taurus and B. indicus and their interbreeds. The hybridization of yak with cattle is common practice in several parts of India. Dzo (male) and dzomo (female), is that the first generation hybrid between cattle and yak. From economic point of view Dzomo is the best livestock for Brokpa as this animal can survive on moderate climatic condition and gives highest milk and milking period [27]. In Bhutan zom is a cross between a Yak (Poephagus grunniens) and a Tibetan bull (Bos taurus). The zom is report to have longer lactation length and produce higher daily milk of lower density as compared to a yak, which could be linked to heterosis resulting from crossbreeding [29]. Brokpas are bound to keep varieties of animals in their herd as some animal of low quality cross with yak. These cross hybrids are one of the best qualities for milking purpose. But the F1 male hybrid (dzo) cannot produce sperm, which prevents the heterosis from being inherited, Castration practice is done to some specific animal such as Dzo which are usually kept for transportation. If population is more selected castration is more done. The cross breeding/hybridization can benefit from the higher performance of hybrid vigor and the crosses are better adapted than the parents to various range of altitudes/ecological zones [9]. Brokpa have a congenial relationship with their neighboring villages and even with the people of neighboring country (Bhutan). They have a reciprocal social institution which plays an important role especially in the exchanging the male and female yak breed.

Impact of Climate change ——–

Global warming may cause a variety of risks to mountain habitats by affecting the distribution of plant and animal [4] . The gradual increase of environmental temperature in yak tracts may affect the themo-neutral zone of yak which ranges from 5° to 13°C [31]. Restricted mobility of Yaks has adapted to high altitudes, but not to human-made lines on the map Indian Himalayas Yak also facing threat of climate changes [10]. Transhumance system of livestock rearing is a source of livelihood among the Brokpa pastoral nomads inhabiting in the climate sensitive yak tracts of Arunachal Pradesh [16] . This primitive pastoral nomad has their own traditional coping mechanisms as adaptation strategies [16] . This transhumance pastoralism provides almost same ambient temperature round year which is also one of the important practice to lower the heat stress in yak .

Shelter Housing and Management————-

Brokpas make their houses usually in traditional style; living standards are tough due extreme cold and harsh climate, houses are constructed by using stones, wood and other local available materials. During migration houses are open and kutcha type, tents were also seen. Shelter for yaks are entirely separate during migration, housing is 100 percent with kutcha flooring. Most houses are full walled but some of also have half wall structure. Houses are without ventilation and drainage facility with poor hygiene condition.

Reproduction and production——————-

Yaks are well adapted to the extremely harsh alpine condition and play a vital role in the economy of pastoral communities. Depending on breed, site and sort of management, the productive and reproductive traits of yak are found to differ (Pal 1993). First mating age were view in yak bulls around 3.0 years were female first calving age is noted 3.5-4.0 years. In central Asia, a mature female yak weighs within the range of 200–320 kg while males are heavier by 30–50% [31]. The average milk yields range from 200 to 400 Litre for the first six months following calving. The sign of first estrus in central Asian yaks occurs around two years age and first calving seen at age of 4 years. However, these traits of central Asian yaks differ from those of the yaks in the Himalayas [31] . Yak breeds within the warmer months with gestation period of nine months generally like cow and provides birth to young calf during April to July. Most yaks give birth to young calf at 4 to 5 years of age. The working life of Arunachali yak is about 10-12 years [25]. The alpine pasture decreased in vegetative above ground biomass and composition which ends up in starvation or loss of body condition seemed to be manifested as reduced fertility in yak with low milk yield

Feeding behavior ——————–

Very scanty facts are known about the feeding behavior of yaks. The grazing time normally varies from 34-80 % of the total time available for grazing. The remaining time is spent in walking, resting, drinking and mastication. Grazing time: During hot and humid season when lush growing pasture is available they spend relatively less time to satisfy their appetite because in winter they spend much more time in search of feed. Herbage cover and season are main factors affecting the grazing behavior. Indian yaks lose 25-30 % of their body wt. during winter due to inadequate fodder. They generally avoid poisonous or thorny plants. But during lean period due to acute shortage of green pasture they graze on poisonous weeds and suffer from poisoning [18]. During winter season, pasture is roofed with thick layer of snow; yaks mostly use hoof, horn, head and muzzle for digging the snow layers, due his strong sensitively developed olfactory organs. In early summer when the pasture is covered with lush growing long grasses, tongue is more actively used for ingestion whereas on pasture of short grasses, lips and incisor teeth are active.

Fodder resource and Feeding management ——————–

Yak prefer fresh, high-quality forages, rise in temperature can reduced the voluntary feed intake, varies with the season and sward heights, from 18 to 25 kg of fresh forage in summer, whereas 6-8 kg per day, depends on wilted grass and coldseason grazing conditions [3] . The periodic feeding pattern is common in yak herders includes the normal migratory feeding system. The alpine pastures (4500 m and above) are graze for the four months of June to September. The center hills (3500 4500 m) are grazed from the month of March to May because the animals migrate up to the high pastures and again on their return during October and November. The winter (December to February) is then spent on grazing below 3000 m. The herders and families stay within the village during the three winter months, and their Yak graze pastures with other animals like cattle, sheep etc [5]. Some of the edible grass species found within the yak rearing tracks of NE-India: – Kyllinga monocephala, Poa annua, Fimbristylis squarrosa, Eragrostis spp., Alopecurus spp., Pogonatherum crinitium, The locally available tree fodder are: Phrengpa (Quercus wallichiana) – Dudhilo (Ficus nemorlis) – Chiple (Reevesia pubescens), Zimbu (Ligustrum myrsinitis) Pasture Grasses Tree Fodder: Syluli (Acer campbellii) Matekpa (Quercus fenestrate) orchard grass white clover [23]. Shrinkage and degrading high altitude pastures might be rejuvenated by introducing suitable temperate grasses and legumes species like orchard grass, perennial ryegrass and white clover for sustainable yak husbandry practices. Lower altitude pastures might be rehabilitation by establishing silvo-pastures with suitable fodder trees to supplement feed for yaks during winter scarcity period [23] . During fodder scarcity supplementary feeding of animals offered cereal grains maize, barley, rice polish, flour, wheat bran etc. roughages paddy straw and barley straw. Yaks have great looking for salt. This habit has been use to focus for animals returning from pasture to get their salt on fixed day and salt is offered at weekly or twice in month. Yaks normally drink water directly from stream/river and in scarcity or absence of water they usually lick snow in winter.

Products from Yak and their Utilization———–

Brokpas and Monpa tribes are widely consumed yak milk and their products like cheese, butter etc, fill a crucial niche in lifestyle and are a resource for livelihood. Different utensils are used for specific purposes in several stages of processing milk products which are made from bamboo and wood. Chhurpi a well staple chew type food prepared by Yak milk, consumed round the year. Yak fat is well known as ghee is usually used in chhurpi and other different dishes [21]. Yak meat mostly used by Monpa tribes on various festivals and occasionally, surplus amount of meat cured in sun light which is used during the off-season. Wool of yak has some special characters like warmth, odour resistance, breathability, softness, and strength, immune to static. Yak horns are sign as holy and used for decorative purposes. The tail also has religious value. They’re washed properly and tied with a rope tightly during a wooden handle to form Chawar (yak tail fan) used for deity worship mostly seen in Sikh gurudwara. The tails also are used as a fly whisker in some areas of India. Yak skins mostly used for decorative purposes and also to organize hide, tents to resist cold, and Mura (stool)

Disease incidences ——————

Foot and Mouth disease is that the most serious but seasonal, with highest incidences recorded, other incidences followed were diarrhea and babesiosis. Infections of Endo-parasites are common cause heavy mortality seen especially in calves. Protozoa and helminthes infections were prompt during spring followed by rainy, autumn and winter seasons. Viral diseases, some diseases like foot and mouth, brucellosis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, hemorrhagic septicemia, chlamydiosis, salmonellosis, gid, and tick-borne diseases are causing death of yaks which successively minimize yak productivity also reported by [12]. Toxic plants eaten by yak is common during scarcity of fodder, Consequence of overgrazing, the intake of toxic weeds – pyrrolizidone alkaloid in Senecio especially – has created problems

Ethno-Veterinary Practices————–

Monpa Tribes are curing different diseases and disorders by using ethno veterinary medicines by their informal experimentation, site specific observations and locally available medicinal plants. They are using different types of plant and their parts e.g. bark, leaves, root, meat, fish, egg and alcohol as medicine for treatment of yaks and crossbreds. Tribes also using alcoholic beverage called rakshi made of millets in different ailments and disorders. Mixture of corns & stem of colocasia and shishnu leaves are boiled given during weakness and pregnancy in yak. Minangmose (Gymnocladus assamicus) an endangered vital tree species is useful for diverse needs, the ripe pods warmed cure for inflammation, soaking the pods in water, treated as disinfectant for cleaning wounds. The extract from the ripe pods is also use to remove leeches from animals [26]. Nyan thub a plant (Thalictrum Foliosum) roots were used for treatment of inflammation and ephemeral fever in yak.

To encourage yak rearing, first of all recognize the impact of climate change on yaks and their habitats. Urgent action is needed for minimize these natural and human challenges to conserve the traditional pastoral systems work and interventions should also focus on nutritional aspects, establishing yak breeding centers, initiating free or highly subsidized pure germ plasm yak breed, improving animal healthcare and veterinary services, improvement schemes, development of grazing pasture and rangeland, Emphasis more on focusing value addition through promotion and establishing the market linkage network for use of yak products.

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