STANDARD PROTOCOLS & PRACTICES FOR ORGANIC DAIRY FARMING IN INDIA

STANDARD PROTOCOLS & PRACTICES FOR ORGANIC DAIRY FARMING IN INDIA

Organic Dairy Health standards

Standards for Animal Health Care Practices in Organic Dairy Farming
v The organic approach to animal health care focuses on prevention of disease through diet, shelter, breeding and husbandry practices, rather than treatment.
v It is not possible to eliminate all animal disease, but when disease does occur a healthy animal is in a better position to cope with it.
v Organic dairy farming aim is to minimize physical or psychological stress in livestock in order to promote well-being and reduce the incidence of disease and has an explicit goal of improved animal health and welfare.
v Herd health problems on organic dairy farms are similar to those seen on conventional farms and important objective of organic dairy farming is to avoid use of routine and/or prophylactic use of conventional veterinary medicines and to use only natural medicines and methods like homeopathy, ayurvedic medicine and acupuncture .
v Organic certifiers require written verification from a veterinarian to confirm the presence or threat of disease infection prior to approving the application of the treatment.
v Where conventional veterinary medicines are used, the withholding period shall be at least double the legal period (National Program for Organic Production, 2014).

1. In ODF, natural medicines & methods, including, homeopathy, ayurvedic medicine and acupuncture shall be given first priority and emphasized.

2. Ethno-veterinary practices (ITKs) are essential component in treatment of sick animals under ODF.

3. Vaccination
• In ODF vaccine shall be used only when diseases are known or expected to be a problem in the region and diseases cannot be controlled by other management techniques
• In ODF, vaccinations are allowed when a vaccination is legally required

4. In ODF, anesthetics shall be used where appropriate to minimize suffering

5. In ODF, using oxytocin for let-down of the milk is not allowed.

6. In ODF, hormonal heat treatment and induced birth are not allowed.

7. In ODF, use of any vaginal implant is not allowed.

8. In ODF, the focus is on preventing health problems and diseases through better /scientific management practices.
9. Prohibited
a) In ODF, farmers should not use preventive antibiotics.

Antibiotic Resistance

b) Substances of synthetic origin used to stimulate production or suppress natural growth are prohibited in ODF.
v Producers use growth promoters to increase growth rates and improve overall efficiency and product quality. Various compounds have been tried for growth promotion, including hormones and antimicrobial agents. Natural hormones such estradiol (estrogen), progestrone and testosterone or synthetic hormones such as zeranol, melengestrol acetate and trenbolone acetate are widely used as growth promoters in animals.
v The nontherapeutic use of wide spectrum of antimicrobial agents including ionophores is a common practice in improving animal production.
v There is substantial recent evidence that residues of hormones in meat and meat products of treated animals may pose a risk to the consumers.
v The adverse effects of hormones include developmental, neurobiological, genotoxic and carcinogenic effects.
v Several European countries have restricted or banned the use of antibiotics as growth promoters because of the possible risks of future drug resistance in human following exposure to small doses of antibiotics in animal products.
v Due to the various risks of antimicrobial agents and hormones, new alternative additives were suggested which may include microbial cultures (probiotics) that are now used in ruminants to manipulate certain biochemical events and the microbial composition of the rumen and prebiotic molecules such as oligosaccharides and lectins.
v Pre- and probiotics do not exclude each other’s function and can or must be used simultaneously in order to obtain a powerful synergistic effects.

Risk of using growth promoting hormones:
v Many researchers criticized the use of hormones such as steroid hormones, beta-agonists and somatotropins as growth promoters because their use may result in animal health and welfare risks and raise ethical questions.
v They suggested that the choice to use hormones as growth promoters should not be left to self-regulation based on self-interest and/or be made subject to international trade agreements governed by economic considerations only.
v In the production of food the price for the protection of the environment and the animals ought to be paid. It is time to make future oriented choices.
v The use of six growth hormones 17β-oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone, zeranol, trenbolone and melengestrol acetate (MGA) for growth promotion in cattle poses a risk to the consumers .
v This is the main finding of the Scientific Committee for Veterinary Measures relating to Public Health which has unanimously adopted an opinion on potential risks to human health from hormone residues in meat and meat products.
v The adverse effects include developmental, neurobiological, genotoxic and carcinogenic effects.

Probiotics as Growth Promoters:
v Probiotics are live microorganisms capable of inducing a beneficial effect on the balance of microorganisms in the digestive tract. With the appearance of the first problems related to the use of antibiotics, the possibility of using probiotics as growth promoters began to be seriously considered. They improve the production performance and the quality of products of animal origin.

10. Milk of sick animals treated with antibiotics can be consumed after drug withdrawal period.
When a person or an animal is given an antibiotic, it goes to work in the body. The antibiotic does its job killing bacteria, and the body does its job breaking down the antibiotic.
This break down takes different times for different antibiotics. It also takes different times in different animals (cows compared to pigs, for example). Some antibiotics have different break down times for different tissues (milk, meat, or liver for example).

What is Withdrawal period ?
The time it takes the body to break down the antibiotic until it is no longer functional or present is called the withdrawal time (or withdrawal period). Once the withdrawal period has passed the antibiotic has been eliminated from the animal’s system.

Common Antibiotics  and their withdreal period
Oxytetracycline Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period The detectable residue values of Oxytetracycline were 508, 387, 213, 113, 101, 43 and 7.5µg/kg at 1 day, 3 days, 5 days, 7 days, 9 days, 11 days and 13 days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal periods of Oxytetracycline were 7days and safe level of that antibiotics were 120µg/kg respectively. The results indicated that the declared withdrawal periods and safe level of Oxytetracycline are almost nearest position which is shown in Figure 5. It was observed that 113µg/kg residue levels at declared withdrawal periods but the safe level is 120µg/kg.

Enrofloxacine Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period From the control research results indicated that the detectable residue values of Enrofloxacin were 419, 272, 149, 112, 78, 36 and 12µg/kg at 1day, 3days, 5days, 7days, 9days, 11days and 13days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal periods of Enrofloxacin were 7 days and safe level of that antibiotic were 70µg/kg respectively
Ciprofloxacin Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period The detectable residue values of Ciprofloxacin were 390, 290, 163, 70, 41 and 19µg/kg at 1 day, 3 days, 5 days, 7 days, 9 days and 11 days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal periods of Ciprofloxacin was 7 days and safe level of that antibiotic was 30µg/kg respectively. The results indicated that the declared withdrawal periods and safe level of Ciprofloxacin did not stay in same positions which are shown in Fig-2. It was observed that 70 µg/kg residue levels at declared withdrawal periods but the safe level is 30µg/kg.
Sulfonamide Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period The detectable Sulfonamide residue values were 229, 140, 54 and 17µg/kg at 1 day, 3 days, 5 days and 7 days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal period of Sulfonamide at 4 days were 100µg/kg respectively. The results indicated that the declared withdrawal periods and safe level of Sulfonamide did not stay in same points which are shown in Figure 3. It was reported that at 240µg/kg residue levels regarded as declared withdrawal periods but the safe level is 100µg/kg.
Gentamycin Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period The detectable residue values of Gentamycin were 467, 366, 254, 188, 160, 136, 110 and 75µg/kg at 1 day, 3 days, 5 days, 7 days, 9 days, 11 days, 13 days and 15 days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal periods of Gentamicin was 14days and safe level of that antibiotics was 100µg/kg respectively. The results indicated that the declared withdrawal periods and safe level of Gentamycin both were almost in at close position which is shown in Figure 7. It was observed that 110µg/kg residue levels at declared withdrawal periods but the safe level is 100µg/kg. So the declared withdrawal period of Gentamycin is true for our condition
Cloramphenical Residue Level at Different Withdrawal Period The detectable residue values of Cloramphenical were 220, 199, 169, 141, 127, 92, 69 and 37µg/kg at 1 day, 3 days, 5 days, 7 days, 9 days, 11 days, 13 days and 15days interval withdrawal periods respectively. The declared withdrawal periods of Cloramphenical was14 days and safe level of that antibiotic was 74µg/kg respectively. The results indicated that the declared withdrawal periods and safe level of Cloramphenical are almost at close the position which is shown in Figure 6. It was observed that 69µg/kg residue levels at declared withdrawal periods but the safe level is 74µg/kg.

WHY DOES THE WITHDRAWAL PERIOD MATTER?
These are two very important ways that farmers contribute to food safety every single day. First, by monitoring which medications they give to their animals, how much they give, and when they give it. Second, by maintaining accurate records and sticking to the withdrawal period. There are layers of monitoring in place to make sure that farmers are doing their due diligence and taking care of their animals, their families, and your families.
It simply takes time for the body to break antibiotics (or any medication) down to a form where the medicines are no longer functional and leave the body. This is why withdrawal periods are so important. Following withdrawal periods means that we know there are no traces of antibiotics in the meat or milk you buy at the grocery store. It means that farmers are doing everything they can to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

HOW DO I KNOW THERE ARE NO ANTIBIOTICS IN MY FOOD
I buy food for my family just like you do. I feed my growing toddler with food from the grocery store. Of course I worry about what he eats. But I never worry that he (or the rest of my family) will be exposed to antibiotics in food.
There are lots of food labels thrown around about antibiotics. And they all make antibiotics sound scary. The truth is that all of those labels are just marketing. No matter how your food was raised, it has to follow the same requirements and rules about antibiotics. Meat is tested to be sure that farmers are following the rules. These rules make it safe for you to eat meat and drink milk without worrying about “accidentally” consuming antibiotics.

FOOD LABELS ABOUT ANTIBIOTICS
The labels on food in the grocery stores are crazy. Here are some of the more common food labels about antibiotics you might see.
• No antibiotics used or Raised without antibiotics. Food with these labels is from animals that were never given antibiotics during their lives.
• No subtherapeutic antibiotics added or Not fed antibiotics. Food with these labels is from animals that were not fed subtherapeutic levels of antibiotics (for disease prevention). They may receive higher doses of antibiotics if they became sick and needed treatment.
Remember, even if your food does not have these labels on it, farmers still have to follow the rules, and milk and meat are tested for antibiotics. Every farmer must follow the rules. If any animal is treated with antibiotics, it must not enter the food supply until the withdrawal period has passed.

11. In ODF, good measures must be followed after the death of an animal due to any contagious disease.
There is a saying that “Postmortem examination is an art of disease diagnosis and the information we get is the message from the dead to the living”. Examination of the dead body by systemic dissection, recording of gross pathological lesions, and their correlation with history to make diagnosis of disease is called postmortem examination.
Indications of postmortem: A postmortem examination should be carried out whenever possible most preferably in sufficient day light and it should be done thoroughly. Postmortem examination should be followed by microbiology, parasitological, histopathological, toxicological and clinical pathology if needed for further zeroing the cause of death. It should be performed on following conditions:
• Whenever there is an outbreak of disease
• For any vetero-legal cases such as accidents, poisoning etc.
• For insured animals to issue death certificates
• Validating the Scientific research
• To know the cause of death: In any suspected cases of nature’s discourse . i.e. lightening, drowning, electric shock etc.

Points to remember while doing the postmortem:
v Most of the veterinarians working in the field are forced to do a postmortem examination in a hurry or with some sort of local compulsion. One should remember the following conditions:
v Confirmation of death prior to postmortem is must.
v PM should not be conducted in carcass suspected to have died from anthrax (After suspecting the presence of anthrax bacilli in blood smear from ear vein or oozing out of unclotted blood)
v PM should be conducted under sufficient day light.

1. Written consent of owner for doing the postmortem is a must. Requisition letter from competent authority (e.g. Police officer not below rank of inspector or magistrate) is particularly needed for vetrolegal and insurance related cases.
2. Recording details of animal identification (e.g. Ear tag, breed, sex, age, length, height, girth behind fore limb, distance between horn tips) and maximum possible history (including date and time of death) prior to postmortem is of prime importance.
3. Postmortem should not be done on carcass that are completely putrefied with liquefaction of all organs.
4. Postmortem should be done only when carcass is presented as whole body (In case of drowned animals carcass is to be taken out of water and presented for postmortem)
5. The carcass should be presented in its actual site as mentioned in the letter from owner/Police.
6. In case of any scheduled or endangered animal species, due consent, information/permission should be taken from local forest officials and/or police before proceeding for postmortem examination.
7. Postmortem area should be clean and the chances of environmental contamination should be minimal.
8. All natural orifices should be closed with towel or cotton wool soaked in a disinfectant solution before removing carcass to place of postmortem examination.
9. Handlers should protect themselves with gloves, apron, mask, cap, gumboot etc. to reduce the contaminations and infections. Movement of people to postmortem site should be restricted.
10. It is the duty of the veterinarians to ensure proper disposal of the carcass after postmortem either through deep burial, incineration or rendering.

Disposal and utilization of carcass

• The primary purpose of safe disposal of carcass is to ensure the check and spread of disease either to other susceptible animals or humans.
• Carcasses of animals may be disposed of by sending them to knackeries or by burial or burning.

Burial of carcasses
• Burial a suitable site should be selected. The burial place must be distant from a well or water course and there is a sufficiency of subsoil to allow a depth of 6 feet above the carcass.
• The carcass must be buried in its skin, be covered with a sufficient quantity of quicklime or other disinfectants.
• The dead animals should be arranged upon its back with feet upwards.
• The skin is slashed inside the pit all cases except ;in the case of anthrax.
• As the small of carcass may attract foxes and dogs the area of the burial needs to be disinfect with coal tar which will act as detergent for sufficient length of time.

Incineration/cremation/burning of carcasses
• There are 4 methods of cremation
o Pit method
o Surface burning method
o Flame gun method
o Incineration in a destructor

Pit method
• Pit method for the carcass of a large cow dig a pit measuring about 7 feet long, 4 feet wide and 18 inch deep is dug.
• A trench about 9 inches wide and 9 inches deep is next dug right across the bottom of the pit, the ends of this cross trench being the bottom of the pit, and sloped upwards so as to reach ground level about 2.5 feet from the edge of the pit.
• The object of this trench is to provide for draught and to facilitate the lighting of the fire. The fire may be laid in the following sequence.
o Fill the trench with straw soaked with paraffin to provide lighting points.
o Place a few piece of heavy timber, iron rails at intervals across the ventilation trench so as to prevent its obstructions.
o Cover bottom of pit with thin pieces of wood.
o Add large pieces of wood.
o Saturate with paraffin.
o Add coal
• The fire is started by lighting the straw at one or both ends of the lighting points.

Surface burning method
• This method can usefully be adopted when labour is scarce or when the nature of ground is not suitable for construction of pit i.e., when the land is water logged.
• Two parallel trenches about 5 feet long, 9 inches wide and 9 inches deep and 2 feet apart are dug in the direction of the prevailing wind at the site selected for cremation.
• The carcass is placed over the trenches.
• Coal is placed on and around the carcass.
• Wood is soaked with paraffin.
• A small quantity of paraffin saturated straw is added, the fire is then lit.

Flame gun method
• No pit or trench is required in this method. The carcass is placed on ground or corrugated iron sheet and a powerful flame directed towards it, destroy the carcass.
• The time taken depends on the number of flame guns used and the size of the animals.

Disposal of animal carcass:
v The dead body of an animal is called carcass.
v An animal carcass is a source of infections, therefore its proper disposal is a regulatory requirement.
v Calf carcass after some moments of death following precautions and methods are followed for the disposal of an animal carcass.

(a) Precautions for carcass disposal:
(i) Wear personal protective equipment while handling the animal carcass.
(ii) Avoid direct contact with the dead animal’s blood, urine, faeces, etc.
(iii) Avoid contact with the dead animal’s parasites like lice, ticks, mites, etc.
(iv) If a carcass for disposal is required to be transported then place it in a plastic body bag and seal it immediately.

(b) Carcass disposal methods:
Any one of the following disposal methods can be adopted for the proper disposal of animal carcass.
(i) Burial: Burial is a commonly used method. In this method, animal carcasses are disposed in a deep pit, followed by covering it with layers of lime and soil.

(ii) Burning: Burning is a well-established procedure where wood or fire beds soaked in kerosene or diesel are kept around the animal carcass and ignited with fire. Care is taken to keep away the vehicles and burning materials from the ignition point.

(iii) Incineration: In this method, animal carcasses are incinerated in an incinerator which is a fixed machine fuelled by natural gas or electricity. The whole carcass is burned and reduced to ashes. This method effectively inactivates the pathogens but is quite expensive.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge For ODF

Organic Dairy farming means raising animals on organic feed (i.e. pastures cultivated without the use of fertilizers or pesticides), have access to pasture or outside, along with the restricted usage of antibiotics and hormones. Products obtained from Organic dairy farm are the organic dairy products. Organic farming is a system of production, a set of goal-based regulations that allow farmers to manage their own particular situations individually, while maintaining organic integrity. In the organic dairy farms following protocols/standards are followed.

• Cows and calves are fed 100% organic feed.
• Organic crops, hay, and pasture are grown without the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides that have not been carefully screened and approved for organic use.
• Non-natural feed additives and supplements such as vitamins and minerals must also be approved for use in organic.
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs, called “Excluded Methods” in the regulation) are strictly forbidden.
• Land used to grow organic crops must be free of all prohibited materials for at least three years prior to the first organic harvest.
• Synthetic milk replacers are prohibited. Calves must be fed organic milk.
• All animals must have access to the outdoors, weather permitting. Animals over six months of age must have access to pasture during the growing season.
• Only approved health care products can be used. Many of these are restricted in how and when they can be used. Antibiotics are not allowed.
• Organic animals may not be fed ANY slaughter by-products, urea, or manure.
• The welfare of the animals must be attended to. Certain procedures, such as tail docking, are prohibited. Other procedures, such as dehorning, must be done so as to minimize the stress to the animal.
• An organic farmer must keep sufficient records to verify his or her compliance with the standards.
• Each farm is inspected and audited every year. Any farm can be inspected unannounced at any time.

In order to achieve these above mentioned protocols our ethno veterinary knowledge or indigenous traditional knowledge are of great help.

Indian traditional knowledge or ITKs for organic agriculture
Introduction
• Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on tradition and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies.
• Indigenous agricultural practices (IAPs) are an unwritten body of knowledge. There is no systematic record to describe what they are, what they do and how they do what they do, how they can be changed, their operations, their boundaries and their applications. It is held in different brains, languages and skills in as many groups, cultures and environments as are available today.
• Indigenous Technical Knowledge is the local knowledge, a knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local–level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education natural resource management and a host of other activities in rural communities.
• Indian farmers, over centuries have learnt to grow food and to survive in difficult environments; where rich tradition of ITK has been interwoven with the agricultural practices followed by them.

Some of the famous ITKs developed by progressive organic farmers of India are provided hereunder

Ingredients
• Cow Dung- 5kg
• Cow urine- 5L
• Cow milk- 1L
• Lime- 250g
• Water- 100L
Method of Use:
Scientifically Validated by: TNAU, Coimbatore and CSKHPKV, Palampur. Sanjivak
Ingredients
• Cow urine-100L
• Cow dung-100-200kg
• Jaggery-500g
• Water-300L
Kept for 10 days to ferment

Method of Application
What is Panchagavya?
Panchagavya is an organic product having the potential to play the role of promoting growth and providing immunity in plant system. Panchagavya consists of nine products viz. cow dung, cow urine, milk, curd, jaggery, ghee, banana, Tender coconut and water. When suitably mixed and used, these have miraculous effects.

How to prepare Panchagavya?

• Cow dung – 7 kg
• Cow ghee – 1 kg
Mix the above two ingredients thoroughly both in morning and evening hours and keep it for 3 days
• Cow Urine – 10 liters
• Water – 10 liters
After 3 days mix cow urine and water and keep it for 15 days with regular mixing both in morning and evening hours. After 15 days mix the following and panchagavya will be ready after 30 days.

• Cow milk – 3 liters
• Cow curd – 2 liters
• Tender coconut water – 3 liters
• Jaggery – 3 kg
• Well ripened poovan banana – 12 nos.
All the above items can be added to a wide mouthed mud pot, concrete tank or plastic can as per the above order. The container should be kept open under shade. The content is to be stirred twice a day both in morning and evening. The Panchagavya stock solution will be ready after 30 days. (Care should be taken not to mix buffalo products. The products of local breeds of cow is said to have potency than exotic breeds). It should be kept in the shade and covered with a wire mesh or plastic mosquito net to prevent houseflies from laying eggs and the formation of maggots in the solution. If sugarcane juice is not available add 500 g of jaggery dissolved in 3 liter of water.
Recommended dosage
Spray system: 3% solution was found to be most effective compared to the higher and lower concentrations investigated. Three litres of Panchagavya to every 100 litre of water is ideal for all crops. The power sprayers of 10 litre capacity may need 300 ml/tank. When sprayed with power sprayer, sediments are to be filtered and when sprayed with hand operated sprayers, the nozzle with higher pore size has to be used.
Flow system : The solution of Panchagavya can be mixed with irrigation water at 50 litre per hectare either through drip irrigation or flow irrigation
Seed/seedling treatment: 3% solution of Panchagavya can be used to soak the seeds or dip the seedlings before planting. Soaking for 20 minutes is sufficient. Rhizomes of Turmeric, Ginger and sets of Sugarcane can be soaked for 30 minutes before planting.
Seed storage: 3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and storing them.

Seed storage: 3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and storing them.

Ethno-veterinary Formulations for Important Ailments in Bovines

Mastitis (all types)
Ingredients:
a) Aloe vera – 250 g; b) Turmeric- 50 g (rhizome or powder); c) Calcium Hydroxide (lime)-15 g; d) Lemon – 2 nos.

Preparation:
1. Blend ingredients (a to c only) to form a reddish paste.
2. Cut both lemons into half.

Application:
1. Make a handful of paste watery by adding 150- 200 ml of water.
2. Wash and clean the udder and apply the mixture throughout.
3. Repeat application 10 times a day for 5 days.
4. Feed 2 lemons twice daily for 3 days.

Note : For blood in milk, in addition to the above, make a paste of curry leaves (2 handfuls) and jaggery and feed orally twice daily till condition resolves.

Teat obstruction
Ingredients:
Freshly plucked & clean neem leafstalk– 1; Turmeric powder; Butter or Ghee

Preparation:
1. Nip the neem leafstalk at the required length based on teat length. 2. Coat the turmeric powder & butter/ghee mixture thoroughly on the neem leafstalk.

Application:
1. Insert the coated neem leafstalk into the affected teat in an anti-clockwise direction.
2. Replace with fresh neemstalk after each milking.

Udder Oedema
Ingredients:

Preparation:
1. Heat oil, add turmeric powder and sliced garlic.
2. Mix well and remove from flame just as the favour develops (no need to boil).
3. Allow to cool.
Application:
1. Apply in a circular manner with force over the entire oedematous region and udder.
2. Apply 4 times a day for 3 days.
Note : Rule out mastitis before using the formulation.

Retention of Placenta
Ingredients:
White radish – 1 full tuber; Lady’s finger – 1.5 kg; Jaggery- as required; Salt- as required

Preparation:
(i) Cut each lady’s finger into 2 pieces. Application:
1. Feed one full tuber radish within two hours of calving.
2. Feed 1.5 Kg of fresh lady’s finger with jaggery and salt if ROP persists after 8 hours of calving.
3. In case ROP persists even after 12 hours of calving, tie a knot very close to the base and cut 2 inches below the knot and leave it. The knot will go in.
4. Do not try to remove the retained placenta by hand.
5. Feed one full tuber of radish once a week for four weeks.

Repeat breeding

Application:
1. Start treatment on 1st or 2nd day of heat.
2. Feed orally in fresh form in the following order once a day along with jaggery and salt: (a)1 white radish daily for 5 days (b) 1 Aloe vera leaf daily for 4 days.(c) 4 handfuls of moringa leaves for 4 days. (d) 4 handfuls of cissus stem for 4 days. (e) 4 handfuls of curry leaves with turmeric for 4 days. (f) Repeat the treatment once again if the animal has not conceived.

Prolapse
Ingredients:
Aloe vera gel- from one full leaf; Turmeric powderone pinch; Mimosa pudica leaves- 2 handfuls.

Preparation:
Remove the gel from a whole leaf.
Wash it multiple times till the sliminess is reduced.
Add a pinch of turmeric powder and boil to half the original volume and allow to cool Prepare a paste of M. pudica leaves.

Application:
1. Clean the prolapsed mass
2. Sprinkle the gel on the prolapsed mass.
3. Apply M.pudica paste after the gel dries.
4. Repeat till the condition improves.

FMD mouth lesions
Ingredients:
Cumin seeds-10 g; Fenugreek seeds- 10 g; Black pepper- 10 g Turmeric powder – 10 g; Garlic- 4 pearls; Coconut- 1; Jaggery- 120 g.

Preparation:
1. Soak cumin, fenugreek and black pepper seeds in water for 20-30 mts.
2. Blend all ingredients to a fine paste.
3. Add 1 full grated coconut to the paste and mix by hand only.
4. Prepare dose freshly for each application.

Application:
1. Apply inside the mouth, tongue and palate.
2. Give the preparation thrice a day for 3 to 5 days.

FMD foot lesions/wound
Ingredients:
Acalypha indica leaves- 1 handful; Garlic-10 pearls; Neem leaves- 1 handful; Coconut or Sesame oil250ml; Turmeric powder – 20 g; Mehndi leaves- 1 handful; Tulsi leaves – 1 handful.

Preparation:
1. Blend all the ingredients thoroughly.
2. Mix with 250 ml coconut or sesame oil and boil and bring to cool.
Application:
1. Clean the wound and apply directly or bandage with a medicated cloth.
2. Apply Anona leaf paste or camphorated coconut oil for the first day only if maggots are present.

Fever
Ingredients:
Garlic– 2 pearls; Coriander- 10 g; Cumin-10 g; Tulsi1 handful; Dry cinnamon leaves-10 g; Black pepper10 g; Betel leaves- 5 no.s; Shallots- 2 bulbs; Turmeric powder- 10 g; Chirata leaf powder-20 g; Sweet basil- 1 handful; Neem leaves- 1 handful; Jaggery- 100 g.

Preparation:
1. Soak cumin, pepper and coriander seeds in water for 15 mts.
2. Blend and mix all ingredients to form a paste.
Application:
1. Administer orally in small portions in the morning and evening.

Diarrhoea
Ingredients:
Fenugreek seeds – 10 g; Onion- 1 no.; Garlic- 1 pearl; Cumin seeds- 10 g; Turmeric- 10 g; Curry leaves- 1 handful; Poppy seeds – 5 g; Pepper- 10 g ; Jaggery- 100 g; Asafoetida- 5 g.

Preparation:
1. Dry fry cumin seeds, asafoetida, poppy seeds and fenugreek seeds till smoke emanates.
2. Cool and powder the fried seeds.
3. Blend it with rest of the ingredients to form a paste.
Application:
1. Roll the paste into small balls. 2. Administer orally in small portions once daily for 1-3 days till condition cures

Bloat and Indigestion
Ingredients:
Onion- 100 g; Garlic-10 pearls; Dry Chilly- 2; Cumin seeds- 10 g; Turmeric -10 g; Jaggery- 100 g; Pepper10 g; Betel leaves- 10 no.s; Ginger – 100 g.

Preparation:
1. Soak pepper and cumin seeds for 30 mts.
2. Blend along with other ingredients to form a paste.
Application:
1. Roll the paste into small balls.
2. Administer orally in small portions with salt 3-4 times a day for 3 days.

Worms
Ingredients:
Onion- 1 no; Garlic-5 pearls; Mustard seeds- 10 g; Neem leaves- 1 handful; Cumin- 10 g; Bitter gourd- 50 g; Turmeric- 5 g; Pepper- 5 g; Banana stem- 100 g; Common leucas -1 handful; Jaggery- 100 g.

Preparation:
1. Blend all the ingredients.
2. Add one litre of clean water.
3. Strain with a fine sieve or muslin cloth.
4. Transfer to a bottle attached to a sprayer.
Application:
1. Spray on the entire body of the animal.
2. Also spray on any cracks and crevices in the cattle shed.
3. Application can also be done using a cloth dipped in the solution.
4. Repeat once a week till the condition resolves.
5. Do the application only during sunny part of the day.

Tick/Ectoparasites
Ingredients:
Garlic– 10 pearls; Neem leaves- 1 handful; Neem fruit-1handful; Acorus rhizome- 10 g; Turmeric powder- 20 g; Lantana leaves- 1 handful; Tulsi leaves- 1 handful.

Preparation:
1. Soak pepper and cumin seeds for 30 mts.
2. Blend along with other ingredients to form a paste.
Application:
1. Roll the paste into small balls.
2. Administer orally in small portions with salt 3-4 times a day for 3 days.

Pox/wart/cracks
Ingredients:
Garlic-5 pearls; Turmeric powder- 10 g; Cumin seeds-15 g; Sweet basil – 1 handful; Neem leaves – 1 handful ; Butter(preferred) or ghee-50 g.

Preparation:
1. Soak cumin seeds in water for 15 mts.
2. Blend all ingredients to a fine paste.
3. Add butter and mix well.
Application:
1. Apply on affected part as many times as possible till condition resolves.
2. Apply after drying the skin surface.

INDIGENOUS TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE (ITK) PRACTICES IN LIVESTOCK FARMING IN INDIA

ITKs Used in Dysentery—–
• One hundred to one hundred fifty g stem, leaves of Anantamul (Indian sarsaparila, Hemidesmus indicus) is grounded and juice is extracted and mixed with honey and to be fed to the animal suffering from dysentery.
• Three pieces of Golmorich (Black pepper, Liquorice Glcyrrhiza glabra Piper nigrum), 2 teaspoon full ghee and 50 g smashed Jastimadhu are mixed with 250 ml cold water and to be drenched.
• One hundred ml sap is collected from the extract of Thankuni (Indian pennywort, Centella asiatica), Patharkuchi (Coleus aromaticus) and Durba(Dhub grass, Cynodon dactylon) and drenched to the cattle for 2-3 days.
• Fifty ml extract of Ganda (African marigold, Targetes erecta) shoot is mixed with 50 ml extract of Durba (Dhub grass, Cynodon dactylon) and is drenched to the animal.
• Three pieces of Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum), 5 g Jowan (Bishop’s weed, Trachyspermum ammi) and 5 g Chirata (Swertia angusti folia var pulchella) are grounded and fed to the animal for 3-4 days.
• One hundred g bark of Simul tree (Salmalia insignis, Bombax insigne) is boiled with 500 ml water and then being drenched to the animal.
• Latex of Chatim (Dita bark, Alstonia scholaris) is mixed with Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) in the ratio of (3:2) to be given to animal. • Bark of Palas tree (Butea monosperma) is boiled with 250 ml water and then is drenched to the cattle for 3-4 days.
• Two hundred g Kalmegh (Creat, Andrographis paniculata) leaves and 100 g Thankuni leaves (Indian pennywort, Centella asiatica) are grounded to make a paste and then fed to the cattle.
• One hundred ml extract of Kurchi (Holarrhena antidysenterica) leaves is drenched to the animal for 2-3 days.
• Decoction of the root of Babul (Acacia arabica) is mixed with mustard oil in the ratio of 1:3 and to be drenched to the animal.

ITKs Used in Arthritis———–
• Decoction of the root of Babul (Acacia arabica) is mixed with mustard oil in the ratio of 1:3 and to be drenched to the animal.
• Roots of Dhutra (Thorn apple, Jimson weed, Datura stramonium), Bonkul tree and Rasun (Garlic, Allium Sativum) are mixed and grounded. A paste is made and applied on the affected part.
• Hot fomentation is given with Akanda leaves (Asclepiadaceae, Calolropis gigantea) along with ghee.
• A luke worm paste is made from Rasun (Garlic, Allium sativum) and ghee and applied on the affected part.
• Sometimes some people put warm iron on the affected part.•
ITKs Used in Dog bite——
• Roots of Bonson tree are mixed with 21 pieces Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and the paste is fed to the animal.

ITKs Used in Cough and cold——–:
• One hundred g Tulsi leaves (Holy basil, Ocimum sanctum) and 100 g Basak leaves (Adhatoda vasica) are boiled with water. Then extracted juice is mixed with 1-teaspoon honey and fed to the animal.
• Three to four pieces of Tejpata (Indian cassia lignea, Cinnamomum tamala), 50 g Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and Aswatha (Ficus religiosa) leaves are mixed. Extract is made from the mixture and is drenched to the animal along with water.
• Efflorcence of Tulsi (Holy basil, Ocimum sanctum) and Basak (Adhatoda vasica) leaves are mixed and extract is taken and mixed with ghee, Ada(Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and molasses and fed to the cattle.
• Fifty ml Begna leave’s sap, 50 ml sap of Ada (Ginger) and 3 pieces of grounded Black pepper are mixed and fed to the cattle.
• A paste is made from ghee, Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum), Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and Rasun (garlic, Allium sativum). Then it is divided into 2 parts. One part is fed to the animal and other part is topically applied over head and neck.

ITKs Used in Anoestrus———
• Seven pieces of chicken egg per day is to be fed for seven days.
• Twelve pieces of Kala (Edible banana, Musa paradisiaca) along with 400 g sugar are to be fed for 2 days.
• One hundred g paste is made from Jaba (Chinese hibiscus, Hibiscus rosa sinensis) flower’s bud and old sugarcane (Saccharum sinense) jaggery, then to be fed for 15 days.
• One hundred g Asok (Ashoka, Saraca asoka) tree’s bark is grounded and fed to the cattle.
• Two hundred g bark of Asok tree (Ashoka, Saraca asoca) is to be boiled with 1 litre milk, then, every day it is to be drenched with water for 15-20 days.
• A mixture is made with the extract of bark of Aswatha (Ficus religiosa) and gruel and is to be fed for 10-15 days.

ITKs Used in Wound———
• Sap extracted from leaves and stem of Kesurta (Scirpus grossus) is mixed with Rasun (Garlic, Allium sativum) and to be applied topically.
• Halud (Turmeric, Curcuma domestica) is grounded and applied topically.
• Extract of Ganda (African marigold, Targetes erecta) leaves is applied topically.
• Jiyeti plant is to be burnt and ash of Jiyeti is then mixed with coconut oil and applied over it.
• Extract of Visalyakarani leaves is applied topically.
• Powder is made by grinding the seeds of Ata (Custard apple, Annona squamosa) and applied topically on the worm-infested wound.
• Paste is made from root, bark of Jam (Syzgium jambolanum) and applied topically on wound.
• Fruits of Khudikathi are to be grounded and mixed with coconut oil and applied topically.
• Roots of Kuchila (Snakewood, Strychnos nux-vomica) and roots of Surjamukhi (Common sunflower, Helianthus annuus) is mixed with Palas (Butea monosperma) petals and mustard oil and applied topically over the wound.
• Latex of Akanda (Asclepiadaceae, Calotropis gigantica) is applied topically.•

ITKs Used in Bloat———
• Fifty g Amlaki (Emblic myrobalan, Emblica officinalis), 50 g Haritaki (Chebulic myrobalan, Terminalia chebula) and 50 g Bahera (Terminalia bellirica) are mixed and fed to the animal daily once for 7 days.
• Ten g bark of Aswatha (Banyon, Fiscus benghalensis), 10 g Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and 10 g salt are mixed and fed to the animal daily once for 7 days.
• A mixture is made from flower of Tal tree (Palmyra palm, Borassus flabellifer), flower of Halud (Turmeric, Curcuma domestica), fruit of Lata tree, soot of kitchen room, bark of Sonari tree and bark of Banahata and then fed to the cattle.
• One hundred g mixture is made of salt, Pyaj, Bakhad, Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale), bark of Aswatha and honey and then fed to the cattle for 3-4 days.A mixture is made with Pat alu (one type of potato), Halud, Bel, Gad (one type of creeper), ghee, Rasun, bark of Aswatha and then fed to the cattle.
• A mixture is prepared from burnt tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum), burnt Bhutta (Maize, Zea mays) and cockroach faeces and applied on the belly.
• One hundred ml sap extracted from leaves of Kadam (Anthrocephalus cadamba) is drenched to the cattle for 2-3 days.
• Mixture of 250 g Somraj (Centrathierum anthelminticum) and 250 g Indrajan (Pala indigo plant, Wrightia tinctoria) is fed to the cattle.
• Twenty ml decoction of stem bark of Kadam (Anthocephalus chinensis) is given to the animal.
• A 250 g mixture is made from Bitlaban (Natrum mur bit), grounded sulphur, molasses, black pepper and glue and then fed to the cattle.

ITKs Used in Diarrhoea———
• Pulp of 100 g old ripened Tentul (Tamarind, Tamarindus indica) is fed to the animal for two to three days.
• Fifty ml sap of Peyara (Common guava, Psidium guajava) leaves is fed. It is efficient for goat especially.
• Valukchairi trees bark and roots of Lajjawati (sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica), Apang (Prickly chab flower, Achyranthes aspera) and Chakunda are to be mixed and grounded. Then 100 pieces Gol morich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and 2 teaspoons ghee are added to it. In case of calf, 40 pieces Black pepper are to be added. Then daily 100 g is to be fed.
• Bonkutti’s leave and Kirkichi tree’s roots are taken in an earthen pot and mixed with 2000 ml water. Then the mixture is boiled till it becomes 500 ml. Then 125 ml is to be fed to the cattle daily.
• One hundred and fifty gram Pelakacha’s fruit is collected and smoked and then fed to the cattle.
• Juice of Anarash (Pine apple, Ananus comosus) leaves is mixed with water and then is to be drenched 100 ml daily for 2-3 days.
• Neem (Margosa tree, Azadirachta indica) leaves and bark of Daka and bark of Daniaa are mixed and sap is extracted from the mixture and then 100 ml of it is drenched everyday for 3-4 days.
• Six pieces of Simul (Bombax insigne, Salmalia insignis) seeds are pulverised and mixed with 250 ml butter milk, then filtrate of this is taken and mixed with goat faeces and to be fed for 3-4 times.
• Rakta Kambal leaves (Indian red water lily, Nymphaea nouchali) are mixed with soda and then fed to the cattle, 50 ml daily for 2-3 days when it is suffering from bloody diarrhoea.
• Sap of 250 ml Kala (Edible banana, Musa paradisiaca) leaves and 100 ml sap of Bans leaves (Bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea rundinacea) are mixed with 250 g sugar and fed to the cattle for 2-3 days.
• Bark and fruits of Bahera tree (Belliric myrobalam, Terminalia bellirica) are pulverised and mixed with water then it is boiled and to be fed 50 ml everyday for 4-5 days.
• Fifty ml sap of Tentul (Tamarind, Tamarindus indica) leaves and Sonal leaves are mixed with Gol morich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and then given orally for 3-4 days.
• One hundred ml sap of Kurchi (Holarkhena antidysenterica) leaves is to be fed to the cattle for 2-3 days.
• Fifty ml Juice obtained from bark of Sal tree (Sal, shorea robusta) and then it is to be drenched.
• Fifty to sixty ml decoction of stem-bark of Khair (Cutch tree, Acacia Catechu) is given to the animal twice daily for 2-3 days.

Antibiotic Residues in milk and milk products

MILK:
Milk a highly perishable commodity is susceptible to contamination:
􀂾Pesticides
􀂾Toxic heavy metals
􀂾 Myco‐toxins, antibiotics and other veterinary drugs
􀂾Microorganisms:

SIGNIFICANCE OF ANTIBIOTICS IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Why public is concerned about antibiotics Public health:
􀂙 Allergic reaction
􀂙 Toxicity
􀂙 Hypersensitivity
􀂙 Carcinogens/ mutagens
􀂙 Alter gastrointestinal micro‐flora
􀂙 Food should be completely antibiotic free

ANTIMICROBIAL USE IN ANIMALS: EFFECTS ON ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE EMERGENCE
􀁹 The problem of antimicrobial resistance knows no boundaries.
􀁹 Drug‐resistant microbes of all kinds can move among people and animals, from one country to another—without notice.
􀁹 The threat of antibiotic resistance is growing at an alarming pace, perhaps more rapidly in developing countries.

Reasons of antibiotic resistance threat among bacteria than other microorganism:
􀂙 The abuse of antibacterial drugs is much higher than that of antifungal or antiviral agents; the later ones are seldom self‐prescribed, wrongfully used as prophylaxis, or have agricultural usage;
􀂙 Much more abundant than viruses, fungi, and protozoa as microbiota of humans, which increases exponentially the exposure of the former to antibiotics each time they are used clinically, creating more chances of resistance to emerge and be selected;
􀂙 Bacterial diseases are also more abundant, at least for treatment purposes, increasing also the exposure to antibacterial drugs, perhaps with the exception of malaria.

First is a business research and consulting firm specializing in food and beverage ingredients, based in India with a global footprint. As part of its academia outreach services, a survey was conducted in five different cities, including Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Mumbai to test the prevalence of antibiotic residues in milk. The prevalence of antibiotics residues was found to be higher in Delhi (100%), Ahmedabad (60%), Hyderabad (20%), followed by Bengaluru (10%) and Mumbai (10%).

Improper drug usage
Out of 10 samples collected in each city for five days continuously, Ahmedabad and Delhi showed higher levels of antibiotic residue prevalence. Prevalence is calculated based on the number of milk samples showing positive above the tolerance limit ranging from 10µg/L of different antibiotics for minimum one day during the survey period of five days.
Babies can’t digest cow milk as easily as breast milk and when it contains antibiotics it may lead to antibiotic resistance, said Dr. S. Balamurugan, Vice president of Indian Academy of Pediatrics, Tamil Nadu. Moreover, if the milk is “containing antibiotics which may lead to antibiotic resistance to babies (it may) also complicate and prove difficult to give appropriate antibiotics to babies,” he said in an interview. “So, starting cow’s milk after a year is advised mostly.”
Antibiotics residues arise from drugs that are administered to the animals and unintentionally get into the milk they produce.
If a batch of liquid milk contains antibiotics at a level above the tolerance limit of 10µg/L of milk, then it has to be rejected. Some of the dairy processors or small-scale milk producers ignore these tests. This is either due to the lack of awareness of the implications or considering this quality check as unnecessary for liquid or pouch milk-processing, according to the F1rst study.

Awareness
An initial survey conducted by F1rst had shown a higher prevalence of β-lactams (beta-lactam) and tetracycline class of antibiotics in the milk samples from the retail markets in five selected cities in India. This highlights the need to build awareness on proper antibiotics usage in livestock, mainly cows, to treat mastitis.

Consumer concerns
There is a need for vigilant control and monitoring of antibiotics and self-compliance, Good Husbandry Practices and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, according to the F1rst study. Creating awareness among the stakeholders is vital to implement new regulations and standards towards the importance of handling antibiotics.

Dairy farmers and para-vets should be trained for proper use of antibiotics and sensitised to prevent OTC drug purchase and administration of antibiotics to cattle.

v The study conducted with an aim to determine the occurrence of antibiotic residues; enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, penicillin G, sulphamethoxazole and chloramphenicol as well as mycotoxins; aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in raw milk samples collected from individual animals from dairy farms located in 9 districts of Punjab, India.
v A total of 168 raw milk samples were collected and analysed using commercially available competitive Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kits.
v Out of these, 19 (11.3%) and 9 (5.4%) samples were found positive for antibiotic residues and mycotoxins, respectively.
v The milk samples were positive for enrofloxacin (4.8%), oxytetracycline (3.0%), penicillin G (3.0%) and sulphamethoxazole (0.6%) residues.
v The percentage of samples found above maximum residue limit established by Europen Union (EU)/Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) were 1.7%, 1.2% and 0.6% for enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline and penicillin G residues, respectively.
v Aflatoxin M1 was detected in 5.4% of monitored milk samples with 1.2% samples exceeded the established maximum levels of EU but were below the maximum levels established by CAC.
v The occurrence of antibiotic residues and mycotoxins in raw milk samples above maximum limits is a rising concern for food safety due to possibility of health risks to the consumers.

ARE THERE ANTIBIOTICS IN MILK?

ANTIBIOTICS IN MILK
Some brands of milk are popping up with a label that says “no antibiotics” or “antibiotic free” or “all milk is tested for antibiotics.” That’s great – we all want antibiotic free milk. And these labels make it sound like their milk is the only milk that has no antibiotics. But did you know, regardless of what the labels say, that all milk is antibiotic free?
If cows get sick, sometimes they need antibiotics. Not every sick cow needs antibiotics – veterinarians help farmers decide which cows to treat with antibiotics and which cows to treat another way. Just like in people – every time you get sick you don’t need antibiotics, but when you do, antibiotics are really important!
If a cow is given antibiotics, her farmer keeps detailed records about which antibiotic she was given, how much, when, and how often. She is taken out of the milking herd, and her milk is thrown away the entire time she is on antibiotics, and for a certain period of time after the antibiotics are done. This is called the withdrawal period.

WHAT IS THE WITHDRAWAL PERIOD FOR ANTIBIOTICS, AND WHY DOES IT MATTER?
Every medicine that is given to animals, including antibiotics, has a withdrawal period. Farmers must follow these withdrawal times to be sure no antibiotics are in our food.

WHAT IS THE WITHDRAWAL PERIOD?
v When a person or an animal is given an antibiotic, it goes to work in the body. The antibiotic does its job killing bacteria, and the body does its job breaking down the antibiotic. This break down takes different times for different antibiotics. It also takes different times in different animals (cows compared to pigs, for example). Some antibiotics have different break down times for different tissues (milk, meat, or liver for example).
v The time it takes the body to break down the antibiotic until it is no longer functional or present is called the withdrawal time (or withdrawal period). Once the withdrawal period has passed the antibiotic has been eliminated from the animal’s system.
v Every antibiotic has a withdrawal period. Some withdrawal periods are very short, 1 or 2 days. Some are longer, 7-10 days. Some are even longer, up to weeks.
v The withdrawal period must be determined for every species of animal the antibiotic can be used on. If the antibiotic can be used in a lactating (milking) animal, the withdrawal period must be determined for both meat and milk.
v (The withdrawal period for milk is usually shorter than the withdrawal period for meat.) All this testing must be completed before the antibiotic is available for sale.

WHY DOES THE WITHDRAWAL PERIOD MATTER?
v These are two very important ways that farmers contribute to food safety every single day. First, by monitoring which medications they give to their animals, how much they give, and when they give it. Second, by maintaining accurate records and sticking to the withdrawal period. There are layers of monitoring in place to make sure that farmers are doing their due diligence and taking care of their animals, their families, and your families.
v It simply takes time for the body to break antibiotics (or any medication) down to a form where the medicines are no longer functional and leave the body. This is why withdrawal periods are so important. Following withdrawal periods means that we know there are no traces of antibiotics in the meat or milk you buy at the grocery store. It means that we know that you and your families are not exposed to “extra” or unnecessary antibiotics. It means that farmers are doing everything they can to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

HOW DO I KNOW THERE ARE NO ANTIBIOTICS IN MY FOOD?
There are lots of food labels thrown around about antibiotics. And they all make antibiotics sound scary. The truth is that all of those labels are just marketing. No matter how your food was raised, it has to follow the same requirements and rules about antibiotics. Meat is tested to be sure that farmers are following the rules. These rules make it safe for you to eat meat and drink milk without worrying about “accidentally” consuming antibiotics.
FOOD LABELS ABOUT ANTIBIOTICS
• No antibiotics used or Raised without antibiotics. Food with these labels is from animals that were never given antibiotics during their lives.
• No sub-therapeutic antibiotics added or Not fed antibiotics. Food with these labels is from animals that were not fed sub-therapeutic levels of antibiotics (for disease prevention). They may receive higher doses of antibiotics if they became sick and needed treatment.
Remember, even if your food does not have these labels on it, farmers still have to follow the rules, and milk and meat are tested for antibiotics. Every farmer must follow the rules. If any animal is treated with antibiotics, it must not enter the food supply until the withdrawal period has passed.

ANTIBIOTIC RESIDUE TESTING
It is the farmer’s responsibility to maintain records of which animals were treated, which antibiotic was used, how much antibiotic was used, and when it was used. It is also the farmer’s responsibility to make sure that the withdrawal period has passed before any meat or milk enters the food chain.
If the same farm has multiple positive tests, the farmer will get higher fines and penalities. After too many positive tests, many processors will not purchase milk or meat from them again.

HOW DO FARMERS KEEP ANTIBIOTICS OUT OF MY FOOD?
When farmers use antibiotics to keep their animals healthy, they must follow strict rules and use the medicines appropriately.

ANTIBIOTIC USE IN ANIMALS
Farmers give antibiotics to their animals for one of three reasons:
1. To treat animals when they get sick.
2. In very specific situations, to try to keep animals from getting sick.
3. To help control the protozoa in a cow’s rumen so she can use nutrients better.
No matter what reason farmers give antibiotics to their animals, they must always follow the label instructions, keep records, and be vigilant about the withdrawal period for the antibiotic.

Analysis of antibiotic residues in raw and commercial milk in Punjab, India vis‐à‐vis human health risk assessment
The present study quantitatively analyzed the occurrence of antibiotic residues in 524 milk samples (492 raw milk samples from dairy farms and 32 commercial milk samples) from Punjab, India using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Tetracyclines, sulphonamides, fluoroquinolones (commonly used in veterinary practice in Punjab), and chloramphenicol (banned in food animals in India) were targeted and analyzed using multiresidue HPLC method. Out of 492 dairy farms milk samples, 78 (16%) were found to be positive for antibiotic residues with 20 (4%) exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs). Among 32 commercial milk samples, 4 (12.5%) were positive for antibiotic residues with one (3.1%) sample violated the MRL. Assessment of human health risks revealed that the current levels of antibiotic residues in milk pose no significant toxicological effects on the health of consumers. However, the results highlighted an immediate need of effective strategies for prevention of non prudent use of antibiotics in veterinary practice for safeguarding consumer’s health.

Organic Dairy standards for Disease Prevention and Control

Animal Disease Prevention and Control for Organic Dairy Farming
1. If any illness occurs, farmer should try to find out the cause and change / manipulate the management practices to prevent future outbreaks ?

Identification of risk factors for disease
v Identifying factors that increase the risk of disease or those that reduce the risk of disease (protective factors) is important so that potential measures can be implemented to either reduce disease or prevent its entry.
v Risk or protective factors for a disease can be demographic, husbandry/management, environmental, or socioeconomic factors, and are assessed by conducting descriptive epidemiological studies (cross-sectional, case-control, or cohort studies).

Major Route of Transmission:

Measures for controlling outbreak of animal diseases:

Reporting mechanism in case of epidemics in farm animals:

2. In ODF conventional medicine (allopathic) can be used when no other alternative is available.
The use of conventional veterinary medicines allowed when no other justifiable alternative is available with the withholding period being twice the legal period. Organic certifiers require written verification from a veterinarian to confirm the presence or threat of disease infection prior to approving the application of the treatment.
Where conventional veterinary medicines are used, the withholding period shall be at least double the legal period .

3. Exceptions:
If the animal is on allopathic treatment for two subsequent times in a year, then it loses its organic status for that year.

4. Prohibited
Genetically produced vaccines are prohibited in organic dairying.

5. Under ODF, instead of relying on medicines, animal’s immunity should be be strengthened so that immune system can do the job.
• Dairy cattle are susceptible to increased incidence and severity of both metabolic and infectious diseases during the periparturient period. • A major contributing factor to increased health disorders is alterations in bovine immune mechanisms. Indeed, uncontrolled inflammation is a major contributing factor and a common link among several economically important infectious and metabolic diseases including mastitis, retained placenta, metritis, displaced abomasum, and ketosis.
• The nutritional status of dairy cows and the metabolism of specific nutrients are critical regulators of immune cell function. There is now a greater appreciation that certain mediators of the immune system can have a reciprocal effect on the metabolism of nutrients. Thus, any disturbances in nutritional or immunological homeostasis can provide deleterious feedback loops that can further enhance health disorders, increase production losses, and decrease the availability of safe and nutritious dairy foods for a growing global population.
• Diseases of food animals represent a major deterrent to a profitable and sustainable animal agriculture sector. Dairy cattle in particular are susceptible to increased incidence and severity of both metabolic and infectious diseases during the periparturient period.
• Health problems occurring around the time of parturition are especially problematic because they greatly affect the productive efficiency of cows in the ensuing lactation. Direct economic losses associated with periparturient health disorders include reductions in the cow’s productive capacity and increased mortality rates.
• Dairy cows are susceptible to a higher incidence and severity of metabolic and infectious diseases. The immune system serves as a defense mechanism against pathogens that the cow may come into contact with. In the healthy cow, the immune system will prevent these pathogens from causing various diseases.
• However, the immune system can be weakened due to the increased stress caused by calving, lactation, and heat. Improving your herd’s immune system will help prevent infections, reduce the cost of treatment and boost milk production and fertility.

To increase your dairy cattle immunity, take the following steps:
• Supplement nutrition during gestation and calving
• Provide natural supplements that have prebiotic effects
• Reduce the adverse effects of extreme temperatures through good management practices
• Perform regular checks on your cattle with your vet’s help

Strategies to improve cow’s immunity
Transition cows, or those cows facing the time period just before, during, and after calving, benefit from extra attention and care. List of top five strategies to help these special cows.
1. Manage body condition. “It’s the best proven way to minimize risk of transition cow disorders.
2. Housing. “It’s the second best way to reduce poor immune function by providing enough stall space and limiting overcrowding, dairy farmers can reduce stress caused from heat and stress incurred when submissive cows encounter dominant cows.”
3. Antioxidants. compounds such as vitamin E and selenium stimulate immune function. And a healthy immune system helps transition cows thwart disease.
4. Anionic diets. “To reduce milk fever and improve transition cow health, anionic diets fed prior to calving improve immunity
5. Tweak immunity. “There are naturally occurring compounds that, when fed to cows, could improve immune function..”
Common Vices of animals, their prevention and control
o Vices are abnormal or bad habits shown by the animals.

1. Eye rolling

• The eyes are moved around in the orbit at a time when no visible object is present.
• Normally seen in calves confined in crates and stand immobile for extended period.

2. Tongue rolling

• The tongue is extruded from the moth and moved by curling and uncurling outside or inside the mouth with no solid material present.
• This condition occurs in all ages and breeds but young adult cattle and certain breeds such as Brown Swiss are exhibiting it most frequently.
• Factors responsible for these vices may be hereditary, continuous confinement, feeding of low roughages.
• Control method includes dietary inclusion of salt mixture, free movement.

3. Licking and eating own hair, wool

• Many young calves housed in individual crates, early weaning leads to licking those parts of their bodies which they can reach, this results in ingestion of large quantities of hair wic aggregates into hair balls or bezoars in the rumen.
• This vice is more common in calves moved from individual pen to group housing.

4. Sucking and eating solid objects

• Recently weaned calves will often suck and lick the walls, bars of their pen.
• This can be controlled by regular creosote paint of wood surface. Feeding good quality concentrate and roughage will minimize the incidence.

5. Intersucking by calves

• Calves separated from their mothers suck and lick at their own bodies, at objects in their pens and at parts of the bodies of other calves.
• The commonly suck on the navel, prepuce, scrotum, udder and ears of other animals.

6. Intersucking or milk sucking by adult animals

• This behavior involves a cow or bull sucking milk from the udder of a cow.
• Cattle suck milk from herd mates and choose the same lactating animal.
• This vice may lead to loss of milk yield and damage to teat.
• Proper feeding management and herd supervision can minimize such incidents

Daily farm routine or day-to-day operation in an ideal dairy farm

Disease control and Management

 Disease control and Management
• Managing disease risk is an important component for livestock operations. Whether it is part of everyday activities or in the event of an outbreak, awareness of common biosecurity, or biological risk management, protocols are essential to those interacting with animal facilities.
• Managing disease risk must be done on a daily basis to ensure the health of livestock and livestock producers.
• However, there are specific prevention steps for certain diseases, and control practices relate to how the disease is actually spread.
• The five routes of transmission will be further explained but include aerosol, direct contact, fomites, oral and vectors. There are commonalities in disease prevention, but some diseases will require additional specific responses to prevent and control spread.
• Heightened biosecurity will be needed during an animal health event and afterwards to minimize or eliminate disease spread.

Infectious Diseases of Cattle and Buffalo
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness (i.e., characteristic clinical signs and/or symptoms of disease) resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism. In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or all of their course. Infectious pathogens include some viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions. These pathogens are the cause of disease epidemics, in the sense that without the pathogen, no infectious epidemic occurs.
Transmission of pathogen can occur in various ways including physical contact, contaminated food, body fluids, objects, airborne inhalation, or through vector organisms. Infectious diseases that are especially infective are sometimes called contagious and can be easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions. Infectious diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually regarded as contagious but do not require medical quarantine of victims.

Mastitis

About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• Mastitis is the inflammatory condition of the udder irrespective of causes.
• It manifests the changes in the milk colour and consistency.
• Milk yield reduces abruptly and results in heavy economic loss.
• High yielding dairy cows are more commonly affected than low yielders.

• Exotic and cross bred cows are more prone to mastitis than the Indian zebu cows.

Causes
• A large number of species of microorganisms have been implicated as causes of mastitis. They are bacteria, fungus, Mycoplasma and virus.
• The most important bacterial organisms causing mastitis areStaphylococcus aureus; Str. agalactiae; Str.zooepidemicus; Str.faecalis; Str. pyogenes; Klebsiella spp; Mycobacterium bovis; E.coli; Brucella abortus; Pseudomonas pyocyaneus; Leptospira pomona; Pasteurella multocida.
• The fungal organisms responsible for mastitis are Trichosporon spp; Aspergillus fumigatus; A.midulus; Candida spp;
• Hygiene, trauma, complete milking and teat injuries may predispose this condition.

Mode of Transmission
• Through the teat canal infection reaches the mammary gland.
• The normal inhabitant of udder and environment like Str. Agalactiae,Stap.aureus, E.coli and Ps.pyocyaneus under favourable conditions multiply and invade the tissues produce much damaging effect.
• The cutaneous surface of the cow may have many organisms as resident population and from where the organisms may have the chance of invade through contamination by handlers.
• The contamination of milker’s hands, clothes and machine cup by milk from the affected quarter may lead to the spread of the disease to other non-infected teats of cow.
• Fly and other insects may also spread the infection from one place to the other.
• Spread of infection is possible through bedding ground by discharges of affected gland.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Swelling of udder as a hard mass.
• Swollen udder with hot and pain while touching it.
• Animal will not allow touching the udder and will kick while touching it.
• Swollen and reddening of teats.
• Milk mixed with blood.
• Milk mixed with yellow or brown fluid with flakes or clots with foul smelling.
• Reduced milk yield.

Management Methods
Preventive measures
• Cow should be allowed in soft bedding following parturition.
• Concrete floor should be avoided especially in case of high yielder. Bedding should be done with straw, saw dust or sand. Sand is the ideal bedding material since it has lower bacterial count.
• Infusion should be used in each cow at dried off.
• Always the animal sheds should be clean.
• Washing the udder and hand of the milker with antiseptic lotion (4% Pottasium permanganate solution) before and after milking.
• The floor of the milking shed should be washed with running water.
• The milker’s hand should be free from nail.
• Cleaning and disinfecting milking machine and the teat cup, vessels after each milking.
• The healthy non-infected cows should be milked first and known infected cows should be milked at last.
• Newly introduced cow should be milked separately and should be screened through California Mastitis Test (CMT).
• The first strip of milk should not be allowed to fall on the floor; they may be stripped in separate container along with disinfectants in it.
• Dipping of all teats following each milking with iodophor solution containing 1% available iodine or hypochlorite solution and Chlorhexidine in 0.5% to 1% polyvenylpyrrolidine solution.
• Immediately after milking should not allow the animal to lie-down by engaging with fodder.
• The milking timings should be in a regular manner.
• The complete milking should be done at every time and milk should not be stored in teats.
• The udder and teats should be protected from any injuries.
• Hygienic measures at milking time, udder preparation before milking, post milking teat disinfections have been recommended as preventive measures.
• Control of fly population should be attempted, for these insecticides fly repellent sprays are to be made in the house and surroundings.
• The frequently affected animals should be removed from the herd.

Suggested first aid
• Application of ice cubes on the udder surface.
• The milk from infected teat should be milked out daily three times and disposed safely outside.
• Calf should not be allowed to suck the infected teat.
• Antibiotic treatment and consultation should be made with qualified veterinary Doctor.

Control measures
• Immediately after detecting clinical signs, it should be consulted with qualified veterinarian for further antibiotic treatment.
• The infected animal should be kept separately from other animals.
• The calf should not be allowed to suck the infected teats.
• The milk from infected teat should be milked out daily three times and disposed properly without contaminate the environment.
• Mastitis milk should be properly disposed. 5% phenol may be added to the infected milk at the time of disposal.
• The healthy non-infected cows should be milked first and known infected cows should be milked at last.
• The non-responsive quarter should be permanently dried up

Foot and Mouth Disease

About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• This is a highly infectious viral disease of farm animals.
• This disease mostly manifests the lesions in the mouth, feet and mammary gland.
• Milk yield drops dramatically in milking animals, suckling calf usually die and pregnant animals may abort and infertility may ensure following abortion.

Causes
• It is caused by a virus Apthous of the family Picornaviridae.
• It has seven immunologically distinct serotypes namely O, A, C, Asia1, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3.
• The virus is quickly inactivated outside the pH range of 6.0 – 9.0 and by desiccation and temperature more than 56˙C, although virus may survive a considerable time when associated with animal protein such as in infected milk the virus will survive pasteurization at 72˙ C for 15 seconds.
• The virus is resistant to alcohol, ether and chloroform.
Mode of Transmission
• Generally by direct or indirect contacts between susceptible and infected animals.
• Through movement of clinically affected animals.
• Through inanimate vectors such as vehicles, fodders, utensils, equipments etc.,
• Through air. Infected animals have a large amount of aerosol virus in their exhaled air, which can infect other animals via the respiratory or oral routes. The virus can travel up to 60 km overland and 300 km by sea.
• All secretions and excretions from the infected animal such as saliva, faeces and urine. The virus may be present in milk and semen for up to 4 days before clinical signs appear.
• The disease has been transmitted to calves via infected milk.
• This virus can survive in dry fecal material for 14 days in summer, in slurry up to 6 months in winter, in urine for 39 days and on the soil between 3 (summer) and 28 days (winter).
• By consumption of infected meat and meat by-products, unprocessed and uncooked milk.
• Through animal handlers, visitors and physicians.
• Most of the animals remain as a carrier following recovery after infection. Carrier may transfer the virus from one animal to another. Carrier cattle may harbor the virus in the esophageal-pharyngeal fluid for 6-24 months.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• High fever up to 104-106˙F (41˙C) and anorexia.
• Profuse salivation (saliva hanging in long ropy strings up to the ground).
• Animal stamps its feet and wounds in the interdigital space of legs followed by lameness.
• Oral ulcers and lesions.
• Smacking of lips.
• Vesicles in the mammary gland.

Management Methods
Preventive measures
• Regular vaccination of farm animals, first dose at 3 months of age, followed by second dose at 30 days after first vaccination. Then repeated once in 6 months interval preferably during April- May.
• Vaccination of all the animals of an area/village is to be done at one time.
• Ring vaccination may be followed for control of disease outbreak and border vaccinations to protect disease free zones.
• Only vaccinated animals should be brought into the village from outside sources that too only 15-21 days following vaccination.
• No purchase of animals from disease prevailing areas.
• New animals should not be purchased until six months following outbreak.
• Unvaccinated animals should not be allowed to cattle fairs.
• Strict quarantine measures for newly purchased animals.
• A foot bath or truck bath may be made at the entrance of the village/farm.
• Always prefer to purchase / procure fodder from a place where FMD has not been recorded for a period of six months or so.

Suggested first aid
• Separation of affected animals from other animals.
• Mouth and feet of the affected animals should be washed with 1% potassium permanganate (KMnO4) antiseptic mouth wash3-4 times a day.
• Glycerin may be applied over the lesions.
• Antibiotic treatment and consultation should be made with qualified veterinary Doctor.
Control measures
v Isolation and confinement of affected animals immediately after detection of clinical symptoms and restriction of animal movements.
v Infected animals should not be allowed to graze in common grazing pasture.
v Affected animals should not be allowed to drink water from ponds/streams/ rivers etc.
v Diseased animals should not be allowed to roam about with other animals of the village.
v Diseased animal handlers and attendants movements should be restricted to the other animal population / farms. If it is not practicable, people should scrub themselves and their belongings with soap and caustic soda.
v In case of outbreaks, healthy animals should be attended first and then the affected ones. After attending the sick animals, persons should wash himself and his clothes with 4% sodium carbonate solution. Utensils used for collecting milk should be cleaned with 4% sodium carbonate solution.
v Calves should not be allowed to suckle affected mothers and they should not be fed with milk from affected animals.
Mouth of the affected animals may be washed with antiseptic mouth wash. 1% potassium permanganate solution may be applied 3-4 times a day.
Feet of the affected animals may be washed with 2% copper sulphate solution. Antiseptic lotion and fly repellents are to be used to avoid infection and maggot formation on the wound.
Disinfection of floors, premises and all infected materials by using Sodium hydroxide (2%), sodium carbonate (4%) and citric acid (0.2%) is advisable.
Lime powder should be sprinkled around the animal houses.
Foot bath should be made at the entrance of the farm.
Anthrax
About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• It is an acute infectious disease of livestock that occurs throughout the world.
• This disease is also known as splenic fever due to the fact that there is extensive enlargement of the spleen(splenomegaly) due to this infection.
• Most of the food animals are affected with anthrax.
• No mammals have got absolute natural immunity against anthrax.
• The most susceptible animals are cattle and sheep.
• It is a zoonotic disease.
Causes
• The disease is caused by bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis.
• When the organisms are exposed to air (oxygen), spores are formed. The spores are never formed so long the organisms remain in the circulation. But when the organisms come out of the body, the spores are formed.
• The spores are very much resistant to cold, hot, chemicals and drying.
• The spores may remain viable in the soil for a considerable period of time and for ten years in the infected tissues and cultures.
• The soil can maintain the organisms in spore stage for years together without endangering the life of animals.
• The spores remain resistant to 100˙C for 5 minutes. But it will be destroyed at 100˙C for 10 minutes.
• The vegetative form of the bacteria can be killed at 60˙C for 30 minutes. In autoclave at 120˙C for 15 minutes all the vegetative forms can be killed.
• Commonly available chemicals cannot kill the spores.
• 5% NaOH can effectively destroy the spore contaminated objects.
Mode of Transmission
• The anthrax spores have got the ability to remain viable in the soil for a considerable period of time and thus remain as a continuous source of spread to the susceptible animals.
• The stream, rivers and flood may carry the spores from place to other and thus may spread the disease to the virgin soil.
• Carnivore animals may carry the infection to the distant places. Carnivores may contact the infection through ingestion of contaminated carcases.
• Flying birds may disseminate the infection from one place to the other.
• Various flies have been implicated as carrier of infection during the fly breeding seasons.
• Animals while graze in the infected pasture pick up the infection through ingestion or through breach in the oral mucosa or skin.
• The new area may be infected due to contaminated animal products such as bone meal, fertilizers, hide, hair, wool, grain or forage.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• There is elevation of body temperature (104 to 108˙C).
• Animal refuses to eat and there is development of bloat.
• Animal is extremely depressed. Animal shows distressed breathing.
• Extreme dyspnoea leads to mouth breathing due to oxygen hunger.
• Sudden death within 48 hrs of illness of animal
• Following death there is oozing of blood from the natural orifices.
• Oedema may predominantly notice under the neck, brisket region, thorax, abdomen and flank.
• In per- acute form animals may be found dead without any premonitory signs.

Management Methods
Preventive measures
• Periodical and regular vaccination should be done.
• Strict quarantine measures in anthrax prone areas.
• Preventing the introduction of infected animals into disease free areas.
• Carcasses should not be opened as it may contaminate the pasture.
• Care should be taken to destroy the dead body by deep burial with quick lime.
• Persons handling the anthrax infected animals should adopt adequate sanitary measures.
• The adjacent areas of the dead and infected animals should be thoroughly disinfected by 3% per acetic acid or 10% caustic soda or 10% formaline.
• The fodder from infected pasture should be destroyed and not to be given to the other animals.
Suggested first aid
• The dead animal body should not be opened.
• Should have consultation with nearest qualified veterinary doctor.
• This disease should be brought under the notice of the regulatory officials in case of an outbreak.
• Care should be taken to destroy the dead body by deep burial with quick lime.
Zoonotic importance
• Anthrax is a zoonotic disease and thus has public health significance.
• Anthrax bacilli or spore may produce cutaneous abscess known as “hide porter’s disease”; pneumonia known as “wool sorter’s disease” or dysentery in man.
• Animal clinicians should take care while making blood smear from dead animals.
• Persons handling the anthrax infected animals should adopt adequate sanitary measures for their own safety.

Abortion

About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• Expulsion of a dead or live recognizable size fetus at any stage of gestation (45-60 days onwards to parturition) is called as abortion.
• This may be due to various causes
Causes
• Infectious conditions such as Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD), Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBRT), Leptospirosis, Brucellosis, Mycotic abortion, Actinomyces, Trichomoniasis, Campylobacteriosis, Listeriosis, Chlamydiosis, and Epizootic Bovine Abortion may cause abortion in cattle.
• Severe trauma, severe torsion of the uterus and twinning may cause abortion.
• Toxins can cause abortion in cows.
• Coumarins from rat poison and moldy sweet clover can cause abortion.
• Nitrates, chlorinated napthalenes, arsenics can cause abortion.
• Locoweeds, perennial broom weed and pine needles can cause abortion.
• Estrogenic compounds may cause abortion.
• Douching and infusion or Artificial insemination of the pregnant animals causes abortion.
• Vitamin A, iodine and selenium deficiencies can cause abortion.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Protrusion of fetal membranes or water bags from the vulva prior to expected date of calving.
• Discharges from the vulva.
• Spontaneous expulsion of a dead or live recognizable size fetus without full development.
• Anorexia, dull and depressed condition of animal.
Management Methods
Preventive measures
• Proper disposal of the aborted fetus and its membranes.
• Prevention of infected materials (uterine discharges, fetal membranes) ingestion.
• Always the animal shed should be clean.
• To prevent abortion due to Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis and Infectious Pustular Vulvovaginitis (IBR-IPV) pregnant cows at any stage of gestation should not be vaccinated with IBR-IPV vaccine. Vaccination can be carried out in heifers at 6-8 months of age.
• To prevent abortion due to listeriosis, feeding of poor quality silage with high pH should be prevented.
• To prevent abortion due to brucellosis, vaccination of calves from 3 to 7 months of age with strain 19 Brucella vaccine and bull calves should not be vaccinated.
• Breeding should be stopped at disease outbreak.
• Contact between animals should be kept at a minimum during outbreak.
• Diseased bulls should not be used for breeding.
• The semen which is used for Artificial Insemination should be free from any infectious agents.
• Pregnant animals should be protected from other animals attack.
• Pregnant animal sheds should not be slippery.
Actinomycosis
About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• This is a chronic infectious bacterial disease occurs in dairy animals.
• This causes swelling of lower jaw or around the mandibular region.
• This condition affects the feed intake of the animals.
• The disease is characterized by rarefying osteomyelitis of the bone of skull in cattle.
Causes
• Actinomycosis is caused by Actinomyces bovis.
• In addition to this organism, association of bacteria like Corynebacterium pyogenes and Staphylococcus are also seen.
Mode of Transmission
• Actinomycosis generally affects cattle between 2 to 5 years and it is a sporadic disease and animal to animal transmission occurs rarely.
• The organisms remain as resident population and may establish the infection through abrasion, injury or wounds.
• The abrasion of buccal mucosa induced by coarse feed or surface material while chewing may set up infection.
• Transmission of infection through dental alveoli at the time of eruption is noted.
• The alimentary canal of normal cattle may harbor A.bovis and from where the organisms may invade the subepithelial tissues through injury by surface object.
Symptoms
• The lesions appear initially as a hard, painless, circumscribed protuberance usually at the level of central molar teeth of the mandible or maxilla.
• The invasion damages the bony tissues and in some cattle, large granulomatous mass appear on the surface of the jaw followed by development of sinus tracts.
• Due to extensive involvement of the mandible and maxilla, the process of mastication is affected and thus there is impairment of digestion resulting to loss of general health.
• Abscess may extend and may produce sinus to the skin surface where from, the purulent discharges are drained.
• Examination of oral cavity may exhibit loose teeth or missing teeth.
• There is foul breath from the mouth known as halitosis.
• Loose teeth induce hypersalivation and dysphagia (difficulty in feeding).
• The adjacent bones may be affected in long standing cases.
• The adjacent lymph nodes are not affected and the disease does not spread through lymphatic channel.
Management Methods
Control measures
• There is no vaccine against this disease.
• Isolation of infected animals and their treatment are to be rendered.
• Removal of contaminated materials and disposal of animals with discharging foci may be made.
• This condition should be consulted with qualified veterinarian for antibiotic treatment.
Ephemeral fever
About the Diseases
Causes
• It is an arthropod transmitted viral disease of cattle and buffaloes.
• Among the cattle age group ranging from 6 months to2 years are more susceptible.
• The virus belonging to rhabdo virus group.
Mode of Transmission
• The disease is transmitted by sand fly.
• Mosquitoes like culex, culicoides have been suggested as a disease transmitter.
• Transmission does not occur by direct contact from animal to animal or via their discharges.
• Outbreak generally used to occur in summer season.
• The virus spread rapidly by wind and spread of the virus over three thousand miles within 5 months period has been reported.
• After infection the virus is found in the blood of cattle in about 5 days. The insects pick up the virus from the blood. Even 0.002 ml of blood may produce disease in susceptible hosts.
• The viruses never exist in the recovered animals and it is suggested that some fauna may be responsible for carryover of the virus from season to season.
• The disease can be transmitted by injection of whole blood.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• The disease is preceded by a sharp rise of temperature ranging between 103-107˙F or more.
• There is shivering and muscle trembling.
• The affected cattle decline to move and if forced to move, they move with great difficulty with arched back condition.
• There is marked anorexia and appreciable reduction in milk yield.
• Salivation, nasal secretion and lacrymation are noticed.
• Muscle of the affected limb becomes stiff, hard and painful.
• The animal shows lameness to acute laminitis.
• Severely affected cattle may lie down with extended rigid hind limbs.
• Lameness may shift from one leg to other within few hours.
• The recumbent animals will also show suspended rumination, grinding of the teeth and signs of groaning.
Management Methods
Control measures
• Vector control is the important key to curb down this disease propagation.
• At present no commercial vaccine is available.
Parasitic Diseases of Cattle and Buffalo
A parasitic disease is an caused or transmitted by a. Many parasites do not cause diseases. Parasitic diseases can affect practically all living, including and. Some parasites like and can cause disease directly, but other organisms can cause disease by the that they produce.
Although organisms such as function as parasites, the usage of the term “parasitic disease” is usually more restricted. The three main types of organisms causing these conditions are (causing), Protozoa and helminths are usually endoparasites (usually living inside the body of the host), while ectoparasites usually live on the surface of the host.
Anaplasmosis
About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• It is an important rickettsial infectious disease of ruminants.
• Exotic and crossbred cattle are highly susceptible.
Causes
• The disease is caused by Anaplasma marginale.
• The anaplasmas are intra-erythrocytic bodies.
• They can be destroyed by heating at 60˙C for 60 minutes.
Mode of Transmission
• The infection spreads through ticks.
• Besides tick, Tabanas spp., Stomoxys spp. And mosquitoes have been found to transmit the disease.
• Carrier animals like cattle and other wild ruminants play vital roles in the transmission of the disease.
• Mechanical transmission through dehorning, castration, vaccination, ear marking has been suggested.
• Transplacental transmission has been observed.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• High rise of temperature,
• Loss of condition,
• Nasal discharge, lacrymation,
• Inappetance,
• Coughing, dry rales, moist rales,
• Rumen atony, dehydration, rough body coat, dyspnoea and muscle tremors.
• Enlargement of superficial lymphnodes,
• Grinding of teeth,
• Pale and icteric mucous membrane.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• High rise of temperature,
• Loss of condition,
• Nasal discharge, lacrymation,
• Inappetance,
• Coughing, dry rales, moist rales,
• Rumen atony, dehydration, rough body coat, dyspnoea and muscle tremors.
• Enlargement of superficial lymphnodes,
• Grinding of teeth,
• Pale and icteric mucous membrane.
Management Methods
Control measures
• This condition should be handled with qualified veterinary doctor.
• Strict control of insect population should be made by acaricidal spray or dips.
• Carrier animals should be isolated and disposed.
• Serological test of the herd should be made and the positive one should be brought under treatment.
• Prophylactic immunization against Anaplasmosis is done by preimunition, attenuated vaccine of ovine origin and inactivated vaccine of ovine and bovine origins.
Theileriosis
About the Diseases
Nature of disease
• Theileriosis is an important disease in exotic and cross bred dairy cattle

Causes
• The species of Theileria those affect cattle are T.annulata, T.parva and T.mutans.
• T.annulata is the most extensively distributed parasite and causes tropical Theileriosis.
Mode of Transmission
• The disease is mostly observed during summer and rainy seasons.
• This preponderance is attributed to higher activity of vector during this season (May to October). This is also influenced by stress due to hot and humid weathers.
• The disease is transmitted by the bite of the ticks of the genus Hyalomma.
• Erythrocytic forms of the parasite are ingested by the larval and nymphal stages of the tick along with blood, while feeding on an infected animal.
• The subsequent stages of the tick (nymph and/or adults) transmit the disease during their feeding on susceptible hosts (Transtadial transmission).
• The disease can also be transmitted mechanically by inoculation of infective blood and tissue suspension made from spleen, lymph node and liver of infected animals.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• High rise of temperature (40.5˙C to 41.5˙C).
• Enlargement of regional superficial lymph nodes.
• Anorexia, restlessness and rough coat.
• Tense eye balls along with watery lacrymation.
• Laboured respiration, serous, nasal discharge and coughing.
• Depression and petechial haemorrhages on conjunctiva.
• Declination of fever and development of anaemia with high coloured urine in later stage.
Urticarial type skin lesions.
• Weakness, prostration and death.
Management Methods
Control measures
• Tick population should be controlled.
Metabolic diseases of Cattle and Buffalo
About the Diseases
These are diseases of livestock caused by productivity practices when the body reserves on calcium, magnesium or energy cannot meet the metabolic needs. They are very important in places where high producing animals are required, e.g. in diary industry. In cattle, metabolic diseases include ketosis, milk fever, fat cow syndrome, and hypomagnesaemia. All these can produce an acute, temporary, but potentially fatal deficiency. Correcting the diet for cows during the period from late pregnancy to peak lactation is crucial in preventing these diseases. If these diseases occur frequently, it is essential to seek professional veterinary and nutritional advice.

Downer cow syndrome
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases

• Affected animals remain bright and alert but are unable to stand.
• This is frequently met in exotic and cross bred dairy cows.
• Most commonly occurs immediately after parturition.
• Most commonly it is a complication of milk fever condition
Causes
• Downer cows are unable to rise after two injections of calcium preparation indicating persistant hypocalcaemia. • There is low phosphorus level.
• There may be of low blood potassium level. This is often seen in association with hypophosphataemia.
• A low level of blood magnesium has been incriminated as cause but it may develop along with low level of calcium.
• Muscular injury due to too much confinement in the byre, obesity, over feeding during dry period and too much compression of limbs.
• Following parturient paresis a cow may develop downer syndrome due to nerve injuries and over stretching of nerves or due to pressure on nerves while in recumbency.
• The damage of the heart muscle may be attributable to repeated dosing with calcium preparations in milk fever condition.
• Well fed highly obesed cows during later part of pregnancy very often suffer from a condition known as fat cow syndrome which predispose to downer condition.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Cow is inability to rise and remains in recumbent position.
• On stimulation the cow either makes little attempt or no attempt to rise or simply unable to rise even with treatment for milk fever.
• Cow remains bright and alert.
• Appetite, rumination, defecation and urination are usually normal.
• Temperature is usually normal but may turn towards sub-normal range in the terminal stage disease.
• The affected cow usually crawls around utilizing the forelimbs whereas hind limbs remain in flexed position. This type of stance is ascribed as “creeper cow”
• A downer cow which continues to remain down for more than 7 days ends fatally.

Management Methods
Preventive measures
• We should provide most comfortable bedding prior to calving and in advanced stage of pregnancy. Sand is the ideal bedding material.
• Early detection and treatment of milk fever.
• Recently calved animals should be monitored at least 48 hours after parturition for the occurrence of milk fever signs.
• Recumbent animals should be treated as soon as possible and not delayed for more than 1 hour.
• Cow should not be mated with a heavy bull. The weight of the bull should be within the weight bearing capacity of the cow. Otherwise there is risk of paralysis and fracture of hip bones.
• The cow should be bred with a bull as per its size as a big calf in a small cow will invite dystokia problem leading to calving paralysis.
• Cow should not be made over fatty through too much feeding during advance pregnancy.
• Cow should be made to stand within a short time following parturition.
• Parenteral Vitamin D3 should be given in milk fever prone cow during pregnant period.
• Low calcium and high phosphorus diet should be given to stimulate parathyroid gland and thus to avoid hypocalcaemia.
• If possible cow of a dairy farm should be brought under metabolic profile test to pinpoint the deficit and to make good use of it.

Control measures
• Recumbent animals should be treated as soon as possible and not delayed for more than 1 hour.
• Provision of comfortable bedding materials for recumbent animals. Arrangement of soft bed should be made.
• Attempt should be made to roll the cow from side to side to minimize the extent of ischemic necrosis.
• Lift the cow and frequent turning should be made. Cow should be turned at least at 3 hours interval.
• Attempt should be made to lift the cow on its fore legs by using body slings.
• Hip lifters may be used for lift the downer animals.
• With the help of body slings, the animals should be allowed to stand for 20-30 minutes and then lowered down. This should be repeated several times a day.
• Animal’s both fore and hind limbs should be massaged two times per day.
• Downer animals should be milked normally and the udder kept clean by washing with germicide soap before milking and post milking teat dips should be applied.
• Re-placement therapy with Calcium, Phosphorus, magnesium, Glucose containing preparations can be used parenterally by qualified veterinarian.
• Infective causes should be brought under antibiotic coverage.
• Physiotherapy by adopting muscle massage may be made to restore muscle activity of the limbs.
Parturient paresis (Milk fever)
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• Parturient paresis is a metabolic disease occurring most commonly within 72 hours of parturition in adult females.
• It is frequently found in high yielding Jersey cows.
• Amongst cattle, mature and old cows are most commonly affected usually in the 5-10 year age group.
• High yielding dairy cows are mainly susceptible to the disease especially during their 3rd, 4th or 5th pregnancy or parturition.
• This is characterized by recumbency, muscle tremors and becomes normal after calcium borogluconate ingestion.
Causes
• A depression of the level of ionized calcium in tissue fluids.
• Excessive drainage of calcium in the milk just after parturition.
• Excessive loss of calcium in the colostrum beyond the capacity of absorption from the intestine and mobilization from the bones to replace.
• An impairment of absorption of calcium from the intestine at parturition.
• Deficiency of Vit. D and less acidic pH in gut.
• The mobilization of calcium from storage in the skeleton may not be sufficiently rapid to maintain normal serum level.
• Sometimes milk fever is associated with hypocalcaemia, hypophosphataemia and hypomagnesaemia.
• There is a special susceptibility if the animal is subjected to any stress. Forced exercise, long distance transport, sudden deprivation of food and grazing on oxalate containing plants or green cereal crops may precipitate the condition.
• Non –parturient Milk Fever occurs in any situation which may impose severe stress or starvation of feed deprivation may be the factors which may ultimately produce a sudden shift in calcium balance leading to hypocalcaemia.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• There is muscle weakness and flaccidity of muscles.
• Tremor is found in the eye and muzzle.
• Animal may rest on sternum.
• There is diminished consciousness and the animal may show drowsy condition.
• There is lateral kink in the neck or head may rest on the flank (‘S’ shaped posture).
• The skin and the extremities remain cold. Temperature is generally subnormal.
• Muzzle becomes dry.
• Mucous membrane of the eye also turns dry with dilated pupil.
• Eyes are unable to blink.
• There is relaxation of anus.
• Venous pressure is low as such it may difficult to raise the jugular vein.
• There is atony of the rumen leading to constipation.
• The animal may be in lateral placement.
• There is complete flaccidity for which animal cannot sit up.
• Due to recumbency bloat is evident.
• There may be Anuria and oliguria due to paresis of muscles
Management Methods
Suggested first aid
• Treat the animals as early as possible before the cow become recumbent.
• Bring the animal to sternal recumbency until treatment is available.
• Bring the recumbent cows from slippery floors to non-slippery areas.
• If the animals are lying in the open ground, erect a temporary shelter to protect from sun light.
• Immediately after evidence of milk fever signs and recumbency, consult with qualified veterinarian for calcium administration.
Prevention Method
• A diet containing less than 20 gm of calcium per day should be fed during the last two weeks prior to calving to prevent milk fever.
• Avoid excess calcium intake during the dry period. Diet containing less than 80 to 100gm/ day of calcium throughout the dry period may be fed to prevent milk fever.
• Phosphorus intake of less than 35 gm/ day may be the standard level for the prevention of milk fever.
• High phosphorus and low calcium level during the last month of pregnancy may be maintained to prevent milk fever (Ca: P= 1:3.3).
• Diets containing higher level of chloride and sulphur – anions relative to sodium and potassium cations may prevent occurrence of the diseases. Excess anions help in the absorption of calcium.
• Administration of ammonium chloride 3 weeks before parturition may be a useful method of prevention.
• Use of Vitamin D3 and its metabolites has been an effective approach to prevent milk fever. A single intramuscular injection @ 10 million unit 3-8 days prior to parturition may be made. A dose of 1 million units for every 45 kg body weight would be a rational preventive approach.
• Oral calcium gel dosing (50% calcium chloride) has been suggested at prior to calving, at calving, 12 hours post calving and 24 hours of post calving to prevent milk fever.
• Addition of lime stone water in the drinking water prior to parturition will prevent this condition.
• Avoid over fattening in the pre-partum period.
• Avoid stresses at the time of parturition.
• Provide a clean, well- bedded box stall for calving.
• Make frequent observation of cows prone to milk fever from 48 hours after parturition for signs of milk fever and treat them promptly if any signs are exhibited.
Control Method
• Calcium borogluconate-25% 500 ml slow Intravenous injection 10-20 drops/ minute.
• Compounds containing cal-Mg-Boro-gluconate-200 to 350ml I/v followed by S/c for rest of dose.
Obstetrics and Gynecological conditions of Cattle and Buffalo
Anoestrum
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• This is a metabolic disorder of dairy animals.
• This manifest digestive disturbance.
Causes
• Failure to detect / observe oestrus signs.
• Suboestrus, weak or silent oestrus.
• A low plane of nutrition, lack of energy and protein, deficiency of minerals namely P, Co, Fe, Cu, I, Mn and Vitamin A.
• Failure to recognize that an animal is pregnant.
• Anoestrus due to persistent corpus luteum, conditions associated with uterine pathology such as pyometra, mummified foetus, foetal maceration, mucometra and hydrometra and
• Insufficient hormonal stimuli.
• Senility, chronic debilitating disease like JD, TB etc., seasonal and environmental influences and heavy lactation (negative energy balance) may predispose anoestrus.
• Closely confined dark stables, lack of exercise combined with nutritive factors.
• In suckling animals prolactin may reduces the ovarian sensitivity

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Absence of oestrus signs
Management Methods
Prevention Method
• Unobserved oestrum may be due to managerial deficiencies and short period of oestrus. The dairy animals should be observed for heat signs at least three times a day.
• Wall charts, breeding wheels, herd monitors and individual cow records may be used for identify the oestrus.
• Teaser bulls (vasectomized or by applying apron) are useful in identifying heat in large number of animals especially buffalo cows.
• Provision of adequate lighting to improve oestrus detection.
• Silent / weak / Suboestrus are most common in buffalo cows and common in post partum period. In this cyclical changes in the genital organs occurs but the signs of heat are not exhibited or not observed. This requires rectal examination by qualified veterinary doctor.
• Extra feeding of a concentrate mixture or grains like maize, Cholam, kambu. Etc., and at least small amount of green fodder along with other roughages.
• TANUVAS Mineral mixture may be supplemented.
• After breeding the animals should be checked for pregnancy within 45-60 days by qualified veterinary doctor.
• Uterine pathology and hormonal stimuli should be handled by qualified veterinary doctor.

Repeat breeder
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• Animals come to heat and not conceived after three successive inseminations are called repeat breeder.
• This may be due to various reasons
Causes
• Due to deficient Luteinizing Hormone release, delayed ovulation or failure of ovulation may leads to fertilization failure.
• Defective ovum or ageing of ovum may leads to fertilization failure.
• Inability of the sperm to fertilize a viable ovum.
• Inability of gametes to reach one another.
• The organisms Trichomonas fetus, Campylobacter fetus, Brucella abortus and IBR-IPV which may cause early embryonic death.
• Deficiency of Selenium and Vitamin E may cause early embryonic death.
• Long period of feeding estrogenic forages may affect the embryo survival.
• Environmental stress during first week after breeding may lead to early embryonic death.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Animal will not conceive even after three successive inseminations.
Management Methods
Preventive and Control measures
• Bring the animal into positive nutritive balance.
• Mineral mixture supplementation should be done to breeding animals.
• Do Artificial Insemination twice at each oestrus preferably at 12 or 24 hrs intervals.
• Skipping of AI and intrauterine infusions may be considered for uterine pathology.
• Diseased bulls should not be allowed for breeding.
• By avoiding diseased breeding bulls the pathogenic organisms causing abortion may be controlled.

Endometritis
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• Endometritis is a localized inflammation of the uterine lining, associated with chronic postpartum infection of the uterus with pathogenic bacteria.
Causes
• The causal organisms usually reach the uterus from the vagina at coitus, insemination, parturition or postpartum.
• The great majority of cows suffer from bacterial contamination of the uterus after calving.
• In cows that develop endometritis, the bacterial flora is not eliminated from the uterus, causing the endometrium to become inflamed.
• The factors associated with the development of endometritis are, retained fetal membranes, abortion, induced calving, multiple births, dystokia and bacterial loading.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• The presence of a white or whitish – yellow mucopurulent vaginal discharge in the post partum cow.
• The volume of discharge is variable, but frequently increases at the time of oestrus when the cervix dilates and there is copious vaginal mucus.
• The cows rarely show any signs of systemic illness, although in a few cases milk yield and appetite may be slightly reduced.
• Rectal palpation frequently shows a poorly involved uterus which has a doughy feel.

Management Methods
Control measures
• A wide range of antibiotics, hormones, antiseptics and immunomodulators have been used as treatments for endometritis.
• This condition should be handled with qualified veterinary doctor.

Dystocia
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• The first or the second stages of parturition is markedly prolonged, becomes difficult or impossible for the dam to deliver the foetus without artificial aid.
• Dystocia means difficulty in birth.
• The overall incidence of dystocia varies with the species and with breeds within the species.
• The bovine species is most often affected.
• Dystocia is common in primipara than in pleuripara.
• Heavier male calves, twin pregnancy in cattle and low litter size in multiparous species, increase the incidence.
• Pregnancies that terminate early are conducive to dystocia through the medium of uterine inertia and fetal malposture.
• Prolonged gestation causing fetal oversize, close confinement, overfeeding, gross underfeeding and too early breeding increases the incidence.
Causes
• Twining, hydro amnion and foetal anasarca
• Improper nutrition of the growing heifers was the most important factor in retarding body and pelvic growth.
• Small pelvis, under developed juvenile genital tract, and lack of strength to expel the foetus.
• Breeding a poorly grown, underfed female that may be old enough to breed, but the body growth has been greatly retarded due to poor nutrition, parasitisms or diseases.
• High feeding levels favours excessive deposition of fat in the pelvic region predisposing to difficult parturition, especially in heifer.
• High feeding levels favours the development of a larger fetus (especially high feeding during the last third of pregnancy) leads to difficulty in giving birth.
• Close confinement of pregnant animals without exercise, are prone to torsion of uterus and uterine inertia.
• Any infection or disease affecting the pregnant uterus and its contents may cause dystocia.
• Dystocia may be due to Expulsive forces (Expulsive defect), adequacy of the birth canal (Constriction) and size and disposition of fetus (Over size and faulty disposition).

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Difficulty in giving birth.
• Calf limbs or face protrude from the vulva.
• Animal attempts strong forces and unable delivers calf

Management Methods
Control measures
• It should be handled with qualified veterinary doctor.
• It has been suggested that dairy heifers may be bred by size or weight rather than by age.
• During parturition all animals should be watched closely, if possible, so that prompt aid may be given if parturition is not normal.
• To help control infections that predispose to uterine disease and foetal death, both the sire and dam should be free of infection at the time of service.

Total Uterine Prolapse

About the Diseases

Nature Of Diseases
• This is expulsion of uterine mass through the vagina.
• It is a common complication of third stage of labour.
• It is more common in pluriparous than primiparous animals.
• This condition is most commonly seen in cow than other animals.
Causes
• The flaccid atonic uterus.
• Violent or strong tenesmus during or after parturition.
• Retention of placenta at the ovarian pole of the uterine horn.
• Excessive relaxation of the pelvic and perineal region.
• Commonly seen in confined or stabled cattle especially during winter months.
• Forced extraction of the fetus.
• Over distension of the abdomen or excessive amounts of loose pelvic fat favour the condition by increasing the intra-pelvic pressure.
• Due to intra abdominal pressure.
• Delayed contraction of the uterus.
• Poorly grown, thin debilitated heifers and low plan of nutrition.
• During last 2-3 months of gestation, when large amounts of oestrogenic hormone being secreted by the placenta known as hyper estrogenism

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• A mild protrusion of the vaginal mucous membrane through the vulval lips when the animal lies down.
• In standing posture, the prolapsed mass hanging upto the hock joint.
• The fetal membranes and /or mucus membrane of the uterus is exposed.
• The mass is usually covered with feces, straw, dirt or blood clots.
• Uterus is enlarged and edematous especially in delayed cases (4-6 hrs).
• The cervix is usually present at the vulva.
• The non gravid horn is held inside the peritoneal surfaces of the prolapsed gravid horn and does not evert.
• Stress, restlessness, pain, anxiety, increased respiratory rate may be noticed.
• Internal hemorrhage due to rupture of one of the uterine vessels, shock, incarceration of the intestinal mass and death.
• Pale mucus membrane, expiratory grunt and prostration with severe depression and inability to rise indicated serious complications.

Management Methods
Suggested first aid
• The prolapsed animal should be separated from other animals.
• The mass should be protected from contamination from out sources.
• The mass should be covered with wet clean clothes until treatment.
• It needs careful insertion of protruded uterine mass into the body and suturing the in the vulval lips so this condition should be handled with qualified veterinary doctor.

Torsion of Uterus
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• Uterine torsion is defined as the twisting or revolution of the gravid uterus on its long axis and is common in cows and buffaloes.
• High incidence among pluriparous than primiparous
Causes
• Frequent lying down and getting up may predispose to uterine torsion.
• Lack of fetal fluids and violent falling or rolling and sudden movements may predispose to torsion.
• Close confinement of pregnant animals for a longer period may favour occurrence of uterine torsion.
• A lack of tone of the pregnant uterus comprising lack of fluids, flaccid uterine walls, a small non gravid horn, a long flaccid mesometrium favours uterine torsion.
• A deep capacious abdomen predispose to uterine torsion and especially in buffaloes because of the wallowing habit.
• Exiting causes such as horn thrust or butting by the neighboring animals, violent movements during grazing, rolling due to tympany and colic may cause torsion.
• Transportation of pregnant animals from one place to another in rail or by road cause violent and irregular movements creating anxiety and predispose to torsion of uterus.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• The signs of abdominal pain, anorexia, constipation, lack of ruminations, restlessness or colic symptoms, teeth grinding, treading and tail switching may be observed.
• Displacement of dorsal commissure.
• Tucked up udder and • Vulval edema.

Management Methods
Prevention Method
• Pregnant animals should be housed separately and extra care should be given in handling the animals.
• Rolling, jumping, frequent lie down and falling of pregnant animals should be avoided.
• Transportation of pregnant animals should be avoided.
• Attack and fight with other animals should be avoided.
Control Method
• This condition must be handled with qualified veterinary doctor.
• Rotation/ rolling of the dam may be performed with the help of veterinary doctor.
• In complicated cases cesarean or Laparo- hysterotomy may be recommended.

Retained Fetal Membranes
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• This is one of the most common conditions occurring in animals following parturition.
• This is failure of the villi of the fetal cotyledon to detach from the maternal crypts of the caruncles and retained longer than normal time limits.
• If the placenta is retained longer than 8-12 hours the condition is considered as pathological.
Causes
• Infections of uterus during gestation may be a cause for retained placental membranes.
• Uterine inertia due to hormonal imbalance such as low level of oxytocin.
• Deficiency of Vitamin A and iodine causes retained placenta.
• The hormone progesterone and excess of cortisol in late gestation may cause the retension of fetal membranes.
• The disease conditions causing uterine inertia or atony results in a higher incidence of retention of foetal membranes.
• Close confinement and lack of exercise highly prone to retained placenta.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• A portion of the fetal membranes hang from the vulva 12 hours or more even after the expulsion of the foetus.
• Anorexia and depression may develop.
• A fetid odour develops since the placenta begins to macerate after 24 hours of foetal expulsion.

Management Methods
Control Method
• It should be handled with qualified veterinary doctor by manual removal.
• Before arriving veterinarian, the hanging foetal membranes should be protect from dogs or other animals.
• The protruding membranes should be tied in a knot to prevent them touching the hocks.
• Manual removal can be attempted in 24- 48 hours after parturition.
• Manual removal after 48 hours is not advisable because cervix was closed.
• Manual removal of placenta is contraindicated in cows with elevated temperature and also with vaginitis and vulvitis.
• After removing the fetal membranes, tetanus toxoid injection is recommended to prevent tetanus infection.

Bloat
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
v Prevention of coalescence of the small gas bubbles and entrapment of the normal gases of fermentation.
v Production of stable foam.
v Frothiness of ruminal contents.
v Lush, young pastures and leaves containing high concentration of soluble protein and dominated legume plants particularly alfalfa, red and white clovers and occurs with grazing of young green cereal crops, rape, turnips and legume vegetable crops.
v Feeding of high quality hay.
v Feeding of high grain diet.
v Feeding of the finely ground feed.
v Physical obstruction to eructation occurs in esophageal obstruction caused by a foreign body, pressure outside the esophagus and obstruction of cardia.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
v Obvious distention of the rumen and entire abdomen.
v Discomfort with the animal may stand and lying down frequently, kicking at its abdomen and rolling.
v Sudden death with distended abdomen.
v Dyspnea and grunting accompanied by mouth breathing
v Protrusion of the tongue and extension of the head.

Management Methods
Suggested first aid
v The passage of a stomach tube or trocarization to release large quantities of gas.
v An incision of about 10-20 cm in length over the left paralumbar fossa through the skin, abdominal musculature and directly into the rumen.
v A stick is tied in the mouth like a bit to promote the production of excessive saliva.
v Administration of antifoaming agents such as vegetable oils (peanut, corn, soybean) and mineral oils (paraffin) at doses of 80-250 ml.
Prevention and Control measures
v The pasture should be free from leguminous fodders and bloat producing plants.
v Feeding hay before turning cattle on pasture.
v Maintaining grass dominance in the sward or using strip grazing to restrict intake.
v Allowing animals on well grown mature pastures than immature or rapidly growing pastures.
v Grass- legume mixture with a legume content of 50% is suggested as the maximum bloat safe level.
v Prevention of high energy and high protein supplement.
v Drenching of 60-120 ml of antifoaming agents twice daily (at milking times).
v Feedlot rations should contain at least 10-15% cut or chopped roughage mixed into the complete feed. Preferably the roughage should be a cereal, grain straw, grass hay.
v Grains should be rolled or cracked, not finely ground.
v Pelleted rations made from finely ground grain should be avoided.

Enteritis
About the Diseases
Nature Of Diseases
• Inflammation of the intestinal mucosa resulting in diarrhea, dysentery, abdominal pain and varying degrees of dehydration and acid- base imbalance.
Causes

• The enteropathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and helminths, chemical and toxins.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Diarrhea
• Dehydration, abdominal pain, septicemia and toxemia with fever.
• Feces are soft or fluid in consistency and unpleasant odor.
• Contain blood, mucus/ foreign materials like sand.
• Color of feces is pale yellow and sometimes frank blood.
• Distribution of the feces on animal’s perineum.

Management Methods
Preventive measures
• Ensure adequate non specific resistance by adequate colostrums intake.
• Vaccinate for those diseases for which there is an effective vaccine.

Control measures
• Reduce infection pressure.
• Minimize Managemental and environmental stressors.

Thelitis

About the Diseases

Nature Of Diseases
• This condition is inflammation of teat due to entry of pathogens into teat.
• It most commonly occurs in milch animals.
• It is due to unhygienic measures and environment.
• This causes no change in colour and consistency of milk.
• Untreated teat results in complete destruction of teat.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Affected teat initially shows reddening and swelling of teat.
• Infection progress leads to inflammation of teat.
• Decreased milk production.
• Severe infection leads to destruction of affected teat.

Management Methods
Prevention and control measures
• The animal’s environment should be clean and hygienic.
• The floor of the milch animal should be periodically cleaned with antiseptic solution.
• The milker’s hand should be clean before each milking.
• The dipping of teat after each milking may be effective in preventing entry of pathogens into teat.
• Affected animals should be given with earlier treatment to avoid destruction of teat.
• Affected animal’s teat should be treated with qualified veterinary doctor.

Traumatic Reticulo Peritonitis (TRP)

About the Diseases

Nature Of Diseases
• This is a disease condition commonly occurring in dairy animals by ingestion of hard objectives like nail, wire and iron materials through feed.
• These hard objectives after ingestion enter into the stomach and reach the reticulum and pierce the peritoneum and enter into the heart.
• The pregnant animals mostly affected than non pregnant animals.
• Most of this condition results in guarded prognosis.

Causes

• Caused by the ingestion and migration of a foreign body in the reticulum.
• The feed with hard objectives like nail, wires, hair pins, stitching needles and other piercing needles.
• Allowing the animals in pastures mixed with like these hard objectives.

Symptoms
Clinical symptoms
• Fever
• Anorexia
• An arched stance with abducted elbows
• Muffled heart sounds
• Jugular pulses
• Brisket edema
• Decreased milk production

Management Methods
Diagnostic tests
• Positive stasis test in affected animal- Stagnation of blood on either side of point of application of pressure.
• Negative stasis test in Normal Animal-Stagnation of blood on one side of point of application of pressure.
• Animal movement test- Affected animals will reluctant to move in slopes from up to down and move very slowly with difficulty in walk

Prevention and Control measures
• Feed is the main root cause and it should be free from any wires, nails and metallic objects.
• Animal houses and surroundings should be free from wires, nails, metallic objects and hardware materials.
• Cattle should be kept away from construction sites.
• Crop fields should be monitored for metal debris.
• Processed feed passed over magnets to recover any magnetic foreign bodies prior to being fed to cattle.
• In early stages, it may be consulted and treated by qualified veterinarian.
• In advanced stage, prognosis is guarded.

General Disease Control And Prevention methods

General Disease Prevention and Control Measures

1. Prevention of Environmental contamination
2. Control of Intermediate host, vectors and reservoirs
3. Control of internal parasites
4. Control of arthropod pests
5. Control and reducing the infection as soon as an outbreak occurs
6. Isolation of sick animals
7.Quarantine for newly purchased animals
8. Vaccination of farm animals
9. Deworming of animals
10. Elimination of carriers
11. Tuberculin test
12. Johnin test
13. Agglutination test for brucellosis
14. Test for mastitis-Strip Cup Test
15. Test for mastitis- California Mastitis Test (CMT)
16. Disposal of carcass
17. Burial of carcass
18. Burning of carcass
19. Disinfection of animal houses
20. Disinfection of pastures
21. Common disinfectants and their usage
22. General Disease Prevention Measures

1. Prevention of Environmental contamination
• The premises (sheds, stables, and kennels) and pastures should be prevented from contamination.
• Elimination of parasites from the host at the most appropriate time by use of antiparasiticides thereby preventing pasture contamination.
• Destruction of adult parasites in hosts prevents expulsion of eggs or the larvae and the associated contamination of the environment.
• Ovicidal drugs should preferably be used to destroy the eggs, thereby preventing environmental contamination.
• Anthelmentic treatments prior to rainy seasons using larvicidal drugs will prevent contamination of pastures at a time when conditions are becoming favourable for egg and larval development.
• Proper faeces disposal will give satisfactory control of faecally transmitted monoxenous parasites of animals.
• Faeces or litter may be heaped to destroy the eggs/oocysts of parasites.
• Pens and pastures should not be overstocked.
• Reducing the stocking rate can significantly reduce the parasite burden in animals and the associated problem of contamination in sheds and pastures.

2. Control of Intermediate host, vectors and reservoirs
imiting the contact between intermediate and final hosts by improvements in management.
• Direct action may be taken to reduce or eliminate intermediate host populations.
• Reduction in the number of snail intermediate host by chemical (molluscides) or biological control (ducks, Maris species of snails).
• Reduction in the number of snail intermediate hosts by drainage, fencing and other management practices.
• Reduction in the number of insect and tick vectors by chemical (insecticides/acaricides), biological control (hymenopterous insects, entomopathogenic fungi and Bacillus thuringiensis) and genetic control (sterile male technique, chromosomal translocation).
• Use of vaccines (Tickgard) at appropriate times may control the vector population.
• Destruction of reservoir hosts is important in controlling certain parasites, e.g., rodents for Leishmania and antelopes for African trypanosomes.

3. Control of internal parasites
• Ridding the animal of internal parasites by periodical deworming,
• Preventing infestation of animals by keeping premises free from infective forms of parasite – disinfestations, and
• Elimination of intermediate hosts.

4. Control of arthropod pests
• Manure, filth, damp and dark corners, stagnant water etc. are all favorite breeding places of insects and these places should be concentrated for removal and cleaning periodically.
• Eggs of ticks and mites deposited in cracks and crevices in the walls, floors and wood work of the animal houses should be removed periodically.
• Periodical (once in April-June and once in July-September) dipping or spraying of animals with suitable insecticides to prevent lice, flies, fleas, mites and ticks on skin of animals.
• Inside of animal sheds should be scrubbed and cleaned daily to remove all filth.
• Areas around animal sheds should also be kept dry and clean.
• Interior of animal sheds (roofs, walls and corners) should be cleared regularly of cobwebs and spider webs and sprayed with insecticides at least once in a month.
• Dusting of animals with DDT, lorexane, gammexane or with some patent preparations available in the market can be tried to control cattle warble flies, etc.
• If the herd is small, individual animals can be dusted by hand.
• For larger herds a gunny bag (or any other bag having sufficiently large pores through which dusting powder can escape out) filled with dusting powder can be hung at a convenient place and at a convenient place and at a convenient height. As the animals pass under the bag they rub their backs against the bag, getting a dusting in the process. Such convenient places for hanging the bags are the entrances to stanchion barn, hay or straw feeding bunk, gates leading out on to the pasture etc.
• Organophosphate insecticides like Malathion, Parathion, and Neguvon etc. are available which are very destructive to insects but are quite toxic to animals as well.
• Newer generation synthetic pyrethroids like Deltamethrin (ButoxTM), Cypermethrin (Cyprol, Tikkil) etc. are available in the market.
• Great care should be taken while using these chemicals and manufacturer’s instructions regarding their usage should be scrupulously followed.

5. Control and reducing the infection as soon as an outbreak occurs
• Segregate sick animals.
• Stop all animals, animal products, vehicles and persons coming into and out of the farm.
• Call a veterinarian for advice, adopt containment vaccination.
• Avoid grazing in a common place.
• Ban all visitors to the farm.
• Provide foot dips containing disinfectants at the entry of the farm and gear up sanitation and hygiene.

6. Isolation of sick animals
• Isolation means segregation of animals, which are known to be or suspected to be affected with a contagious disease from the apparently healthy ones.
• Segregated animals should be housed in a separate isolation ward situated far away from the normal animal houses.
• The isolation ward should never be at a higher level than that of the healthy shed.
• If a separate accommodation is not available the animals concerned should be placed at one end of normal animals’ buildings, as far away from healthy stock as practicable.
• Attendants working on sick animals and equipment such as buckets, shovels etc. used for them should not be used for healthy stock. If this is not practicable, the sick animals should be attended to daily, after the healthy stock. After this, the equipment should be thoroughly disinfected before they are used on healthy stock next day; the attendant too should wash his hands and feet in antiseptic and discard the clothes in which he worked. v The isolated animals should be brought back into the herd only when the outbreak ends and they are fully recovered.

7.Quarantine for newly purchased animals
• Quarantine is the segregation of apparently healthy animals (especially animals being brought into the herd for the first time), which have been exposed to the risk of infection from those animals, which are healthy and unexposed to the risk of infection.
• The idea is to give sufficient time for any contagious disease that the quarantine animals may be having, to become active and obvious. Hence, the quarantined period depends on the incubation period of a disease. But in practice a quarantine period of 30 days covers almost all diseases.
• For rabies, the quarantine period should be about six months.
• During the quarantine period, animals should be thoroughly screened for parasitic infestation by faecal examination and de-worming carried out on the 23rd/24th day, if need be.
• The animals should also be subjected to dipping or spraying on the 25th/26th day for removing ectoparasites if any.

8.Vaccination of farm animals
• Vaccination is a practice of artificially building up in the animal body immunity against specific infectious diseases by injecting biological agents called vaccines.
• The term vaccine is used to denote an antigen (substance form organisms) consisting of a live, attenuated or dead bacterium, virus or fungus and used for the production of active immunity in animals.
• The term also includes substances like toxins, toxoids or any other metabolites etc. produced by microbes and used for vaccination.
• The farm animals and young ones should be vaccinated at regular intervals at appropriate times.
• Vaccination should be done with consultation of veterinarians.

9.Deworming of animals
• It is essential to deworm livestock regularly.
• The individual farmer should also try to keep his herd worm-free.
• The most suitable time of deworming is the early stages of infection when the worm load is less.
• The local veterinarian should be consulted for all suggestions regarding dewormers and deworming.
• In adult animals deworming is done on examination of dung.
• It is good to deworm adult females after parturition.
• All the animals should preferably be fasted for 24 hours before giving the anthelmentic.
• Young animals should preferably be dewormed every month using a suitable anthelmentic.
• Older stock can be dewormed at 4-6 months’ intervals. The National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal recommended the following deworming schedule for calves. Such a deworming schedule is very crucial for buffalo calves, in which species mortality due to worms is very high.
• In places where heavy endo-parasite infestations are found (hot-humid regions) it is advisable to deworm heifers twice a year up to two years of age.
• Even adult stock can be drenched twice a year-once before monsoon season (May-June) and once during monsoon (August-September).

10. Elimination of carriers
• An animal recovers from a disease, although apparently in good health the causative organism harbors in its tissues. Such germ carrying animals are known as ‘carriers’.
• The carrier state may remain for years and the animal becomes a potential danger to susceptible animals.
• Common diseases for which carriers have been observed in farm animals are Tuberculosis, Leptospirosis and Brucellosis.
• Carriers of diseases in the herd should be diagnosed and eliminated so that the herd may be completely free from diseases
• Certain diagnostic screening tests can be used for spotting out carriers animals in the herd. These tests should be periodically conducted on all animals in the herd so that carriers can be diagnosed and culled.
• Some of the commonly used screening tests are tuberculin test, Johnin test, agglutination test and test for detection of subclinical mastitis.

11.Tuberculin test
• On injection of tuberculin (purified protein derivatives (PPD) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tubercle bacteria)) into an infected animal, allergic symptoms are set up, and these constitute a ‘reaction’.
• In healthy animals, tuberculin, even in large doses, gives no reaction. This is quite a reliable test for diagnosing non-clinical cases of tuberculosis in all species of farm animals.
• Tuberculin test should be carried out in animal farms once every six months in the initial stages and later on, depending on the health status of the herd, the test can be conducted annually.
• January is the ideal month for conducting tuberculin test under Indian conditions.
• The important methods of test are intradermal, subcutaneous and ophthalmic, the former being most practicable, reliable and popular.
• Intradermal test can be used in all bovines.
• The best site is the side of neck.
• In bovines it can also be done in one of the folds of the skin by raising the tail, or on the vulva.
• In the neck, the sites for the middle third of the neck, as sites near the shoulder or mandible give less pronounced reactions.
• A small area of skin is clipped and cleansed with spirit.
• 0.1 ml of PPD is injected intradermally. If correctly done, the tuberculin creates a bead-like swelling detectable by the finger.
• The positive carrier animals should be culled and destroyed from the herd.

12. Johnin test
• Johnin is (purified protein derivative of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (Johne’s bacterium)) used as a diagnostic test for Johne’s disease in cattle and buffaloes.
• Johnin test is also done like single intradermal test done for tuberculosis.
• A painful indurated skin with an increase in skin thickness more than 4 mm is taken as positive.
• All positive animals are culled and destroyed.

13. Agglutination test for brucellosis
• This is a serological test based on the principle of antigen (dead bacteria) and antibody (agglutinins present in the body fluids, mainly serum of infected animals) reaction, resulting in agglutination of bacteria.
• When the agglutinins present in the serum and other body fluids of animals suffering with brucellosis or carriers is added to a suspension of killed culture of Brucella abortus organisms, the latter will cluster together; the reaction being known as agglutination.
• Healthy animal in which agglutinins are absent, do not show such agglutinations.
• Rapid plate agglutination test, which can be done at the site of the animal.
• Standard Tube Agglutination Test, which can be done in a laboratory.
• Agglutination can be conducted using whole blood, serum, milk, whey, semen, etc.
• Stockmen can only attempt to collect sterile samples of blood (from jugular vein) or milk of their animals periodically (say once in a year) and get them tested in the nearest laboratory.
• All positive reactors to the test should promptly be eliminated from the herd.

14. Test for mastitis-Strip Cup Test
• Strip Cup test comprises of letting the first few streams of milk from each quarter on to the black disc of strip cup. This will show up any clots, which only occur in the fore-milk in mild cases of mastitis, and will permit early treatment.
• Addition of an anionic detergent (such as alkyl sulphates or sulphonates, Teepol) to mastitis milk results in formation of typical gel streaks or clumps, according to the degree of abnormality of milk.

15. Test for mastitis- California Mastitis Test (CMT)
• Milk from each of the four quarters is drawn into separate cups within a plastic paddle fitted with a handle, the cups being marked A, B, C and D to correspond with the quarters so designated.
• By tilting the paddle to an almost vertical position, surplus milk is allowed to run over, leaving only desired quantity of about 2ml.
• To this is added approximately the same quantity of CMT reagent (sodium lauryl sulphate – 4g, Teepol – 15 ml, Distilled water – 100 ml, Bromocresol purple – 100 mg) from a plastic container, care being taken to avoid production of foam or bubbles.
• The milk and fluid are immediately mixed by rapid rotation of the paddle in a horizontal plane while the reactions are noted.
• Formation of typical streaks and clumps indicate mastitis; the severity of reaction roughly indicating intensity of mastitis.
• After the cups have been emptied into a container and the paddle rinsed in clear water (the detergent quality of the test fluid ensures rapid and good cleaning) the apparatus may immediately be used for the next test without drying.
• All the milch animals should be screened for mastitis by strip cup test or CMT test at least once in a month, preferably more frequently.
• The sub clinically positive animals should be isolated from the herd and treated immediately.

16.Disposal of carcass
• Proper disposal of carcasses of animals died of infectious disease is of utmost importance in preventing the spread of diseases to other animals and humans.
• Carcasses should never be disposed off by depositing them in or near a stream of flowing water, because this will carry infections to points downstream.
• An animal died of a infectious disease should not be allowed to remain longer in sheds as biting insects, rodents, etc. can reach it.
• Unless approved by a veterinarian (even then, only in a disinfected place) it is not safe to open carcasses of animals that have died of a disease.
• All carcasses should be disposed of properly either by burying or by burning.

17. Burial of carcass
• The most common method of carcass disposal is burial.
• This is a reasonably safe method if done deeply enough and in soil from which there is no drainage to neighboring places.
• Deep burial is necessary to prevent worms carrying bacterial spores to the surface as well as to prevent carnivorous animals from digging up the carcass.
• The carcass should be carried to the burial place in a trolley and never by dragging it over the ground.
• The burial pit should be got ready before the carcass is taken there.
• The pit should be so dug that the highest part of the carcass must be at least 1.5 m below the level of the land surface.
• Bedding used for the dead animals, its excreta, feed left over by it and the top 5 cm soil form where the dead animals was lying (if the floor is not cemented) should also be buried along with the carcass.
• Drainage of water out of the burial place can be checked by seeing to it that the burial place is an area where the general water level is at least 2.5 m below the ground.
• The carcass is then covered with a thick layer of freshly burnt quicklime and then filled with dirt and topped with some rocks, to further circumvent marauders

18. Burning of carcass
• The most sanitary method of destroying carcasses is to burn them, preferably close to the site of their death, without dragging them any more than is absolutely necessary; even then only in trolley. Site for burning having been decided upon, the trench should be dug.
• The trench should be at least 0.5m deep, shallower towards the ends, and comparing in width and length to the carcass’s size. General direction of the trench should be that of the prevailing wing direction.
• The trench is first filled with wood, some iron bars placed across it and the carcass placed thereon. By firing the wood, the carcass will be completely consumed and, with it, all infectious material.
• In towns and cities the so-called carcass utilization or carcass frying or rendering plants are usually available for industrial utilization of animal’s carcasses. In these the skins are removed with due regard for the dangers of disease dissemination. After removal, the skins are usually disinfected by immersion in a disinfecting solution and the remainder of the carcass ‘fried out’ for its fat, the latter being used in manufacture of soap. Farmers can inform these plants whenever there is a carcass so that these utilization plants can collect the same.
19. Disinfection of animal houses
• Under ordinary conditions, daily scrubbing and washing of houses and the action of sunlight falling in the houses are sufficient enough to keep them moderately germ-free.
• But when a disease outbreak has occurred disinfection is a must and should be carried out scrupulously.
• All floors, walls up to height of 1.5 m, interiors of mangers, water troughs and other fittings and equipments coming in contact with animals are all to be disinfected.
• The first step in disinfection of animal houses is removal of all filth, as the power of disinfectants is greatly reduced in the presence of organic matter.
• Floors, walls up to height of 1.5 m interior of water troughs and mangers should be well scrubbed and all dung, litter etc. should be removed and stacked separately, where animals cannot reach.
• In case of an outbreak of anthrax, the dung, litter etc. should first be disinfected in situ thorough sprinkling of suitable disinfectant. If the floor is of earth, which is generally the case in Indian villages, the top 10cm earth should be removed and disposed off along with litter.
• After removal of filth, the place should be scrubbed and washed with 4 per cent hot washing soda solution (i.e., 4 kg washing soda in 100 litres of boiling water).
• The approved disinfectant solution should then be coated liberally over the place by sprinkling or preferably by spraying and left so to act for 24 hours.
• After this period, the animal house should again be washed with clean water and left to dry by wind and sunlight.
• The interior of water troughs and mangers should be whitewashed. (This can be done even routinely at fortnightly intervals.)

20. Disinfection of pastures
• Removal of any obvious infective material, like carcass, aborted foetus, dung etc. from over the pasture and prevention of animals from grazing on the pasture under question for at least three to four months.
• The pasture can be ploughed up and left fallow for about six months during which period the pathogens would be destroyed by sun.

21. Common disinfectants and their usage
• Bleaching powder (Chloride of lime)
o It can be used for disinfection of animal houses when a contagious disease has occurred and for sterilization of water supplies.
o It should not be used in milking barns as its strong odour may taint milk.
o Concentration required is not less than 30 per cent available chlorine.
o Mode of application is dusting.
o Bleaching powder must be stored in airtight bins as damp surroundings, exposure light and air causes it decompose rapidly.
• Boric acid
o It can be used as an udder wash.
o It is a week antiseptic and is likely to harm nervous system if absorbed into body in large quantities.
o It is used as wash for eyes and other sensitive parts of body.
o Concentration required is 6 per cent solution.
o Mode of application is splashing.
o Nowadays antibiotic solutions are replacing boric acid as eyewash solution.
• Caustic soda (Sodium hydroxide)
o For general use in farm buildings and animal houses, caustic soda is a very effective disinfectant as it is an excellent cleaning agent as well as a powerful germicide.
o It is highly destructive to virus of foot and mouth disease, hog cholera etc.
o It is not effective against tuberculosis and johne’s disease organisms.
o Concentration required is 2 per cent solution for general use and 5 percent solution against spores of anthrax and black quarter.
o Mode of application is splashing.
o Rubber gloves, goggles and protective clothing should always be worn when caustic soda solution is being used as it burns skin and damages fabrics.
• Cresols
o The cresols are only slightly soluble in water and are therefore generally emulsified with soap.
o Effective against a wide range of organisms including acid fast tuberculosis and Johne’s disease bacteria but not effective against viruses and spores.
o Good for disinfecting floors, walls, equipment etc. but not in milking barns because of its phenolic odour.
o Concentration required is 2-3 per cent.
o Mode of application is splashing.
o Use only soft water for preparing solutions, hard water precipitates soap.
o Lysol is a solution of cresol with soap.
• Lime (Calcium Oxide, quick lime)
o It is a deodorant as well as a disinfectant.
o It can be used for sprinkling on manure and animal discharges, on floors or as a whitewash or milk of lime (also known as slacked lime).
o Mode of application is sprinkling, scrubbing or sometimes dusting.
o Always use freshly prepared lime only.
• Phenol (Carbolic acid)
o Effective against several types of bacteria; not so effective on spores and viruses.
o Its disinfectant value is not reduced by the presence of organic matter but oil or alcohol does so.
o It is very toxic, corrosive and irritant.
o Concentration required is 1-2 per cent.
o Mode of application is splashing.
o Great care should be taken in using phenol to protect eyes, skin and clothing.
• Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC)
o These are cationic detergents.
o They have no effect on spores and viruses.
o They can be used to disinfect dairy utensils, udders, milkers’ hands and towels for wiping udders.
o Cetrimide, a white powder is an example for QAC.
o Concentration requires is 0.1 per cent solution (0.5 per cent cream for applying on teats and hands to prevent mastitis.
o Mode of application is wiping of udder with clothes wetted in 0.1 per cent solution; washing of milkers’ hands.
o Utensils should be scrubbed with boiling water before rinsing with QAC.
• Soap
o Soap is an anionic detergent.
o It is a very week germicide.
o But its great usefulness in cleaning various surfaces including skin.
o It can be used preparatory to the application of a disinfectant.
o Mode of application is scrubbing.
o It should preferably be used only as surface-sanitizing agent.

• Sodium hypochlorite
o It is a chlorine compound.
o It is an excellent disinfectant but is not effective against T.B bacteria and its effectiveness is reduced by the presence of organic matter.
o Concentration required is 200 parts per million of available chlorine about 300 ml sodium hypochlorite and about 200g of washing soda in 100 litres of hot water for washing utensils etc. For udder wash-about 60 ml in 10 litres of clean water.
o Rinsing of utensils, wiping of udder.
o Should be stored in air-tight containers as hypochlorites deteriorate rapidly when exposed to air.
• Washing Soda (Soda ash, Sodium carbonate)
o It is good for disinfection of barn premises upon which an outbreak of virus disease like foot-and-mouth disease has occurred.
o It is a good detergent.
o Concentration required is 4 per cent solution.
o Mode of application is scrubbing.
o Lye is better against Foot-and-mouth disease virus than soda ash.
o It should be used as a hot solution.

22. General Disease Prevention Measures
• Feed should be placed in troughs that cannot be contaminated by faeces and waterers should be kept clean and free of contaminants.
• Good grazing management will control pasture or grassland borne helminthic infections.
• Use of clean or safe pastures (not grazed for 6 to 12 months) will help to control helminths problems.
• Rotational grazing of livestock species should be followed to minimize or limit the infection from pasture.
• All new arrivals to the farm should be isolated for at least 30 days and dewormed.
• Young animals are generally more susceptible to parasites than adults. Therefore young animals should be housed separately from adult animals.
• Infected/Infested animals should be removed from the flock or herd and housed separately.
• Treatment should be followed by chemoprophylaxis to prevent reinfection.
• Vaccines may be used to prevent infection, if suitable vaccines are available.
• Prompt and proper disposal of manure and other filth from the farm premises.
• Regular scrubbing and cleaning of feed and water troughs as well as whitewashing their interior at least once in a week.
• Leveling up all ditches, low marshy areas, pits etc. in and around animal houses so that water may not stagnate in them.
• Filling up or fencing of all stagnant water pools, ponds etc. around the farm and on pastures so that animals may not get access to them. It is always better to have piped water supply to farm animals.
• Housing animals in clean houses with paved floors.
• Animals of different ages should be housed separately.
• Younger animals should never be mixed with older ones.
• Proper deworming of all such animals before putting them in a shed or bringing them into the farm.
• If grazing is practiced-division of pasture into several blocks and practicing rotational grazing in these blocks.
• Feeding of cultivated fodders is more helpful in checking pasture-borne infections.
• Preventing humans from defecating on pastures or around the farm, as this may cause contamination with tape worm eggs.
• Care should be taken to see that dogs (intermediate hosts), crows and other birds (mechanical carriers) do not gain access to the animal farm.
• Control of snail population may result in control of liver fluke infestation to some extent.
• It is worthwhile trying reduction of snail population by treating infected pastures, ponds, streams, etc. with copper sulphate.
• A concentration of one part of copper sulphate in one million parts of water is generally recommended but stronger solution may be necessary when large quantities of decaying organic matter are present.

 Organic Dairy Housing Standards

Standards for Animal Housing management in Organic Dairy Farming

1. Adequate natural bedding materials are necessarily required under ODF.

• Sawdust and wood shavings: When properly screened and dried, sawdust can provide an effective bedding option for dairy cows. A drawback to using sawdust is that it can facilitate pathogen growth when damp, although adding lime to the bedding can reduce the risk. Wood shavings can serve as surface bedding, but they can be more expensive and less absorbent than sawdust.
• Straw: Chopped straw can provide a comfortable environment for cow bedding. However, it’s essential to change the bedding frequently, as heavily soiled straw can promote the growth of pathogens. Using straw with a small particle size will increase animal comfort and reduce the breakdown time.
• Compost: Compost provides an organic bedding option for dairy cows that works well in open barn environments. The use of composting does require twice-daily aeration during milking, as well as the addition of sawdust or wood shavings as needed.
• Proper ventilation is also essential due to the manure content. When the compost pack reaches four feet in height, farmers can then remove it from the barn and use it to fertilize their fields.

v In recent years, efforts have been undertaken to improve welfare and overall-health of dairy cows by providing a higher level of comfort regarding the housing environment.
v Housing system and resting surface have influence on milk yield and reproductive performance as much as feeding and keeping methods in dairy herd.
v Proper bedding and flooring provide soft area for animals to lay for rest and help to improve their productive and reproductive performance.

2. Bedding materials that are normally consumed by the animals should be organic
3. Sufficient free movement and accessibility to fresh air and natural daylight is essential besides protecting them from excessive sunlight and rain.

4. Animals should have access to clean fresh water all times to meet their water requirements under ODF.

5. Herd animals should not be kept individually under ODF.
6. Tethering is generally not allowed in ODF.

7. Even in ODF animals can be confined for specific reasons, such as, milking, for some medical procedures, controlled grazing, during night time and for health, safety and well being of animal.

8. In ODF, as far as possible locally available materials may be used for construction of dairy animal dwellings.
9. Maintenance of sanitation, hygiene and bio-sescurity are essential in ODF.
Bio-security: means the protection of farm animals against diseases and includes measures designed to protect the animal population against harmful biological or biochemical substances.
Bio-security refers to various measures that are undertaken to stop the spread or introduction of harmful organisms to animals, human and plant life.

The following bio-security measures are followed in animal farms to control the diseases.
(i) Restricted access to livestock farm: A livestock farm is secured by fences or walls to avoid the unauthorized entry of any person. By providing fences and walls, entry of wild animals can also be checked.

(ii) Provision of footbath: A footbath of disinfectant like solution of phenol or slaked lime or solution of copper sulphate is kept at the entry and exit points of a farm gate to prevent the spread of pathogens in animals.

(iii) Use of personal protective equipment (PPEs): Animal health workers wear apron, gloves, mask, head mask and gumboots for their safety and security while handling the animals. They need to wash their hands with soap and sanitizers frequently.

Dairy Hygiene

A. Requirements for premises and equipment
v Milking equipments and premises where milk is stored, handled or cooled must be located and constructed so as to limit the risk of contamination of milk.
v Premises for the storage of milk must be protected against vermin, have adequate separation from premises where animals are housed and, where necessary to meet the requirements laid down in Part B, have suitable refrigeration equipment.
v Surfaces of equipment that are intended to come into contact with milk (utensils, containers, tanks, etc. intended for milking, collection or transport) must be easy to clean and, where necessary, disinfect and be maintained in a sound condition. This requires the use of smooth, washable and non-toxic materials.
v After use, such surfaces must be cleaned and, where necessary, disinfected. After each journey, or after each series of journeys when the period of time between unloading and the following loading is very short, but in all cases at least once a day, containers and tanks used for the transport of raw milk must be cleaned and disinfected in an appropriate manner before re-use.

B. Hygiene during milking, collection and transport
v Milking must be carried out hygienically, ensuring in particular: (a) that, before milking starts, the teats, udder and adjacent parts are clean; (b) that milk from each animal is checked for organoleptic or physico-chemical abnormalities by the milker or a method achieving similar results and that milk presenting such abnormalities is not used for human consumption; (c) that milk from animals showing clinical signs of udder disease is not used for human consumption otherwise than in accordance with the instructions of a veterinarian; (d) the identification of animals undergoing medical treatment likely to transfer residues to the milk, and that milk obtained from such animals before the end of the prescribed withdrawal period is not used for human consumption; and (e) that teat dips or sprays are used only if the competent authority has approved them and in a manner that does not produce unacceptable residue levels in the milk.
v Immediately after milking, milk must be held in a clean place designed and equipped to avoid contamination.
v It must be cooled immediately to not more than 8°C in the case of daily collection, or not more than 6°C if collection is not daily.
v During transport the cold chain must be maintained and, on arrival at the establishment of destination, the temperature of the milk must not be more than 10°C.
v Food business operators need not comply with the temperature requirements laid down in points 2 and 3 if the milk meets the criteria provided for in Part III and either: (a) the milk is processed within two hours of milking; or (b) a higher temperature is necessary for technological reasons related to the manufacture of certain dairy products and the competent authority so authorises.

C. Staff hygiene
Persons performing milking and/or handling raw milk must wear suitable clean clothes.
v Persons performing milking must maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness. Suitable facilities must be available near the place of milking to enable persons performing milking and handling raw milk to wash their hands and arms.
v Surfaces of milking and cooling equipment which come into contact with milk are the main source of milk contamination, and are frequently the principal cause of consistently high bacterial counts.
10. Animals of two different species shall not be kept together as per ODF standards
11. Indigenous dairy cow require 3.5 and 7 square meters per head floor space as covered and open area respectively.
12. Buffaloes/ cross bred cows require 4 and 8 square meters per head floor space as covered and open area respectively.
13. Under ODF a maximum of 50 cows/ buffaloes can be reared in one shed.
14. Under ODF a maximum of 12 young calves can be reared in one shed.
15. Under ODF a maximum of 30 old calves can be reared in one shed.
16. A breeding bull requires 12 and 20 square meters per head floor space as covered and open area respectively under ODF.

Housing of Dairy animals

Housing Plan

Selection of site for farm building
• Proper housing which is conducive to good health, comfort and protection from inclement weather and which would enable the animals to utilize their genetic ability and feed for optimal production.
• For construction of farm buildings selection of site is most important. Before selecting a site the following points are to be considered,

Soil
• Soil must be suitable for strong foundation.
• Marcy, clay, sandy, rock soils are not suitable.
• Loamy and gravely soils are best suited for building construction.

Quality of land:
• There should be vast area to construct all building and should give way to future expansion of farm.
For 2 cows 1-acre land is essential for fodder production.

Drainage system
• Proper drainage of rain and subsoil water should be provided to keep healthy environment and to protect the building from dampness.

Availability of water
• Plenty of water is needed for farm operations like washing, fodder cultivation, processing of milk and byproducts and for drinking.
• Hence a water source which provides water constantly is essential.

Electricity
• It should be available at the site.
• It is needed for operating various machines used in the farm and is the light source to the animals.

Protection from wind and solar radiation
• If the farm building in open or exposed area, the wind breaks in the farm of tall quick growing trees should be grown near the building.
• This will reduce the wind velocity and solar radiation.

Protection from noise and other disturbance
• The farm site should be away from noise producing factory/chemical industry, sewage disposing area.
• The industrial effluents in the form of gaseous or liquid may pollute surrounding resources.
• Noise is also found to affect the animal production. Hence the farm should be away from city.

Availability of market facility
• The farm should be away from the city but at the same time it should be nearer to city thereby the products produced from the farm could be marketed easily.

Transport facility
• The farm buildings should be provided with good road and also have the accessibility to reach the market.
• This will reduce the transport cost and avoid spoilage of products.

Miscellaneous
• Other facilities like availability of telephone, nearby school for children of farm workers, post office, shopping center and entertainment facilities should be provided.

Factors to be considered while designing a livestock farm
• Different types of enterprises such as dairy, piggery, sheep and goat units need different building design. So the design should be prepared to meet the need of a particular enterprise.
• Each enterprise may adapt different systems of production and management. The design may be influenced by enterprise also. The following factors may be considered while designing a livestock farm,

1. Designing for unit
• It is desirable to design the accommodation for a workable unit.
• It will give opportunity to study the need of smaller group with regard to floor space, feeding space required for different kinds of animals.

2. Structural form
• Shape and design of building should meet the needs of all classes of livestock.
• Uniformity in the appearance should be maintained. We have to decide the number of animals to be housed in the building and number of buildings to be constructed.

3. Designing for flexibility
• Animal building has to be designed to meet the requirement of changing enterprises.
• This will increase the utility of buildings. Spacious building without pillars can be easily being adopted for different enterprises with little modifications in the building.
• For example large intensive dairy buildings can be used for rearing pig or sheep and goat with little modification.

4. Shape of the roof
• It is designed to suit the local climatic conditions. Gable with roof ventilator is necessary for hot condition.
• Monitor roof is suitable for building with smaller width.
5. Standard width of buildings
• Single row cow shed should have length of 3. 80 to 4.25 metres and
• Double row cow shed should have 7. 90 to 8.70 metres length.
6. Standard height of the building
• The standard height of the building may differ according to the roofing material and agro climatic condition.
7. Length of building
1. Environmental controlled house
• Recent trend in animal house is to control the bad effect of environmental factors to provide comfort condition to the animals.
• In tropical building, choice of building material and method should be employed to prevent heat radiation from sun in to the building through roof, wall and surrounding ground.
• Non- conducting material with sufficient insulation will prevent various kinds of heat radiation.
• Comfortable air velocity, optimum humidity should be maintained in the building.
• These entire factors will have effect on production, fertility, fecundity and prolificacy.

2. Quality of products
• High quality milk and egg can be produced only in certain type of houses, which are specially designed for it.
• For example certified high quality eggs are produced only in cages with roll away floor arrangement or in slatted floor arrangement.
• Certified high quality milk with low bacterial counts can be produced only in the parlour system of milking.

3. Labour control
• One of the major expenses in a farm is the cost of labour.
• Labour cost can be reduced and designing the animal house properly and labour efficiency can be improved by double row arrangement of animals and animal building facilitates circular travel and two-way job.
• Construction of alleys/passages like feed alley, milk alleys, egg collection alleys animal weighment yard are designed to reduce the labour cost.

4. Disease control
• Animal house should be designed properly to effect disease control.
• Provision of washable and easily drained floor, washable walls will control spread of diseases.
• Designing of suitable drainage system for quick and hygienic disposal of wastes is required for preventing disease.
• External loose box accommodation is necessary for isolation of sick animal.
• Dampness resistant surface will reduce the high humidity, which is the predisposing cause for respiratory disease in young animals.

5. Standard height of the building
• The height of the building may differ according to the roofing material and agro climatic condition.

6. Length of the building
• The building may be of any length. In case of dairy 15-20 animals in single row system and 20 – 50 animals in double row system and above 50 animals a separate shed should be provided.
• The length can be determined based on the total stock to be housed with the building.
Preparation of housing plan
The following points should be considered before planning and designing animal houses
• It should be of attractive appearance
• It should minimize labour cost
• Efficiency of the operation should be increased
• It should have resale value
Plan preparation is essential for construction of animal houses. First a rough plan which consists of following should be prepared

a. Site plan
• It is used to locate the site where the buildings are to be erected.
• It should contain details of various building arrangement, road formation and space between buildings etc will be located.
b. Floor plan
• It is the aerial view of the different structures to be erected within a farm building.
• It should contain details like dimensions of the building, location of ventilators, and doorways will be marked in the floor plan.
c. Elevation
• The appearance and view of the whole building will be shown in the elevation

d. Cross section
• It gives details of building foundation, type of flooring, walls and roof of the building.
• The internal fittings, partition, feeding and securing devices should be clearly shown.

e. Master plan
• After preparing the rough plans and found satisfactory a master plan should be prepared.
• The master plans are prepared in semi-transparent paper with black ink as per scale.
• From this mass production of plans will be made by subsequent process like blue printing.

f. Van – Dyke print
• These are negatives of the original drawing. Black (or) blue lines are provided on the white back ground in the negative.

g. Blue print
• Mass production of plans are made from negatives by exposing them to sensitive blue print paper developed in water and fixed in potassium dichromate.
• It is used to estimate the cost and to carry out the construction work.

h. Orientation

GENERAL LAYOUT/ ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS OF THE FARM
• Proper planning, designing and arrangement of various building in a farm is necessary for a successful enterprise.
• Layout is essential to increase the profit, decrease the production cost, and to increase the efficiency of operations in the farm.

The farm buildings can be grouped into five major categories:
The farm buildings can be grouped into five major categories:
a) Farm houses or homestead
b) Farm buildings or farmstead
c) Farm store
a) Isolation shed
e) Quarantine shed

• The farm housing can be constructed facing road; other buildings may be turned at an angle to road or reversed to take advantage of the prevailing wind and sunlight.
• In general animal sheds are located with long axis east to west the paddock side facing the north to get direct sunlight during winter and to prevent entry of direct sunlight into the shed during other seasons.

a) Farm houses or homestead
• Farm houses are the residential building meant for the person working in the farm.
• The farm house should never be placed to the leeward side of the farm building.
• Attention to this point tends to prevent flies and smell from the manure heap being blown towards the dwelling houses.
• Farm house should be located at windward side. The farm office should be located in the prominent place most probably at the center of the farm.
• The manager’s house should be located at the entrance. This facilitates efficient supervision.
• All the buildings in the farm should be grouped together for efficient operation. The related enterprises must be grouped.
• The major enterprises which need more attention should be located nearer the farm office.
• In mixed farming the piggery unit can be located away from the dairy unit as well as manager’s office.

b. Farm buildings or farmstead
These are meant for housing the livestock.
The farm buildings should be kept well away from the farm house and worker’s cottages.
But consideration must be given to the distances being not too great, otherwise stockmen or other animal attendants might be reluctant to turn out at night or in bad weather to give the animals the required attention.

c. Farm store
• Farm store is meant for storage of feed materials as well as other farm products.

d. Quarantine shed
• Quarantine shed should be located at the entrance of the farm.
• So that new animals purchased from outside may be kept and if they are found to be free from diseases, it can be included in the farm.

e. Isolation shed
• It should be located away from the healthy animal shed

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS FOR A SHED

a. Material used
Foundation footing can be made of cement concrete or brick and cement mortar.
Concrete foundation is stronger and is called monolythick foundation.
Brick foundation is provided with stepped up increase in width towards the base. It is not so strong as concrete.

b. Method of putting foundation
o Trenches of suitable size are put up to receive foundation. The base is hardened, made smooth and level.
o Then the footing and foundation wall is put up to ground level.
o The surface is smoothened and levelled again.
o At this place, a 4% layer of damp proof course of asphalt or other material is introduced to prevent absorption of moisture.

2. Walls and Wall materials
• Walls are the supporting structures built above the foundation to enclose the buildings.
• They may be constructed with materials like brick, stones or concrete with thickness of 9”, 12” and 6” respectively.
• Non-weight bearing walls of brick need not be thicker than 4 ½”.
• The height of the wall depends upon the type of animals to be housed under the building.
• Principles followed for finishing the walls in animal houses are as follows,
o The height up to 4 feet from floor should be finished smoother with hard cement plaster and made washable for reasons of hygiene.
o Corners should be filled and rounded to prevent accumulation of dust.
o The sharp edges and angles should be rounded to prevent accident.

A. Bricks
a).Building bricks
o They are made out of brick earth, which are 50 per cent clay and 50 per cent sand.
o Rectangular blocks are prepared by molds and cut by machines.
o Then they are heated in the Kiln at proper temperature.
o Well made machine bricks will have standard dimensions of 9″ x 4½ ” x 3″.
o They will have uniform shape, colour and texture and will be sharp on angles.
o They produce clear ringing sound when struck with hard objects.

b).Vitrified paving bricks
o These are hard, impervious and durable bricks paving more than 10 per cent of iron oxide.
o They are heated at very high temperature to the point of vitification.
o They are grooved on the outer surface and have a strong and hard finish. They are damp proof.
o They are special bricks made for use as flooring in animal houses.

c).Glazed bricks
o These are small bricks made of china clay and finished with glaze or enamel on the outer surface.
o They are used for providing sanitary finishes on walls and the places where hygienic condition and washable surfaces are necessary.
o They are very costly bricks.

B. Stones
a).Granite
o These are hard and natural stones. They may be black in colour or light Grey.
o They are durable and weather resistance and are commonly used for the construction of walls and floors in animal buildings.
o The surface should be of roughened periodically by chipping.

b).Whin stones
o They are also hard rocks but not so durable and weather resistant as granites.
o They are used for wall constructions and broken stones are uses as a common ingredient of cement concrete.

c).Sand stones
o These are immature rocks of recent formation. They are not strong and durable and not used in heavy constructions.
o They are capable of being dressed into different shapes and patterns. Hence, they are used for architectural work

C. Binding Materials
a. Lime
o It is prepared form limestone, which are heated and slacked with water.
o The white power that is produced is called lime.

b. Lime mortar
o It is prepared by mixing one part of lime with three parts of pure sand adding sufficient quantity of water.

c. Cement
o It is prepared from 70% chalk and 30% clay, which is mixed with water to form a creamy fluid.
o It is allowed to settle and then the sediment is collected dried and roasted over kiln and ground into fine powder.
o It is greyish and bluish Grey in colour. It is an efficient binding material used for building bricks, stones and other materials.

d. Cement mortar
o Cement and sand in 1:3 ratios.

3. Roof
• Roof is provided for the purpose of protecting animals from hot sun and rain. It also protects the internal structures.
• It should be of simple type. Cheap materials have to be used for animal buildings.
• One of the essential qualities required for roof material in tropical condition is to have high insulation value.
• In the absence of this, the roof has to be insulated.

A. Roof patterns
i). Lean to type roof
o These are simple roof with single slope adopted for shed type of buildings.
o Roof ventilation cannot be provided in this pattern.
o In this type of roof one wall is higher than another one to give necessary slope for roof. It is suitable for maximum span of 2-4 meter.

ii). Gable roof
o These are coupled roof with two slopes, roof ventilation can be provided in this pattern the form of continuous ridge opening protected by louvre board.

iii). Monitor roof
o The roof has two slopes, but one overlaps other at the ridge of the roof with a ventilation gap of one feet.
o In this roof ventilation can be provided in between two slopes.
o This also suitable for tropical buildings and it serves the purposes of ventilating and lighting the building.

iv). Semi monitor roof
o Roof has 2 slopes but one overlap the other at the ridge of roof with ventilating gap of 1 feet.

v). Gothic arch
o This is an arched roof providing greater roof space used for store houses.
o Used for storage of feed.

B. Roofing materials
• Different materials are used as roof covering. Careful selection of material is essential in tropical building to prevent the solar radiation.
• It is preferable to have material with low conductivity of heat. The commonly used roof materials are,

i. Tiles
§ They are cheap and easily available in most of the places. It conducts heat rapidly. Hence it is suitable for hot climate.
§ Wind or accident easily damages them. It has to be renewed periodically. There are two types of tiles.
a).Pan tiles or Mangalore tiles :
§ These are rectangular tiles with grooves on outer surface and two nibs on the inner surface. They are lied one at the side of the other to cover the roof.

b).Country tiles :
§ These are semi-circular tiles of different shape and dimensions.
§ They are used by keeping one over other in layers forming numerous air pockets, they conduct less heat.

ii.Asbestos sheet
§ These are commonly used in poultry buildings.
§ Asbestos sheets are prepared by mixing cement mixture with varying quantities of vegetable fibers.
§ They are available as sheets of different dimensions with corrugated surfaces
§ Sheets are easily fixed to roof trusses and more durable than tiles. But the houses under this roof will be hotter during summer.

iii. Aluminum Sheets
§ Corrugated aluminum sheets of different thickness and dimensions are available in the market as roof coverings.
§ They are 2 ½ feet width and varying length from 8 to 12 feet. They are very light and can be easily fixed.
§ The bright and polished surface of new sheets provides a reflective insulation and keeps the animal houses cool during summer.
§ They are expensive but have a greater resale value. They are rust proof and therefore they are more durable.

III. Thatched Roof
§ This roof is made of either coconut or Palmyra leaves. Sometimes hay and straw are used as roof coverings. They are cheap and poor conductors of heat.
§ They keep the house cool in summer. They are non-durable and has to be removed yearly or once in two year. They are very prone for fire accident.

iv. Galvanized iron sheets
§ These are iron sheets, which are galvanized on the surface and provided with corrugation. They are available in standard dimension of 6 feet x 3 feet.
§ Galvanized sheets are commonly used in animal houses but this sheet keeps the house very hot during summer.
§ It is suggested that sheet should be painted white on outer side to avoid absorption of heat. They are strong and may be rusted after long use.

4. Construction of floor
• Floor is the important part of the building. Floor is the one, which is frequently used by animals for various purposes as resting, movement, feeding and milking etc.
• So the floor must have all the qualities, which are required to meet the purpose.
• It must be strong as durable to withstand the weight to hard roof of the building and movement of hard hoof of the animals. Durability is also required for economical point of view.
• Flooring must facilitate hygienic feeding and effective removal of waste product both liquid and solid.
• The floor should be laid on solid and compact foundation. It should have a gradient of 1/60 from manger to the rear dung channel.
• Non slippery quality is needed to avoid accident slipping especially in case of large animals.
• Grooves and roughened surface should be provided.

a. Floor materials
• Different materials are used for animal house flooring. The choice depends on availability, cost and other quality required for the animal houses.
o Cement concrete floor
o Vitrified paving bricks
o Stones
o Building bricks
o Gravel

i). Cement concrete floor
o This is a common material used in animal house. It is cheap and durable floor if properly constructed.
o In tropical condition, it provides the required cool condition for the animals.
o Groove and rough surface are to be provided for preventing accident.

ii). Building bricks
o They are sometimes used as a flooring material. They are not good floor materials. They absorb water and are easily worn out.
o They are set on edges closely and packed with good quality of cement.

iii). Vitrified paving bricks
o These are hard impervious bricks with grooves on the surface.
o It is an ideal flooring for animals because of durability and damp proof condition.
o The bricks are set over the bottom and a cushion of sand. The joints are coated with cement mortar.

iv). Stones
o Granite stones are used in place where they are easily available. They are made into a block.
o The floor surface is roughened and laid over a cushion of sand. It is durable and strong and cheap.

v). Gravel
o Fine quality of gravel can be used as cheap quality flooring materials. It absorbs water and worn out quickly.
o Periodical repair and maintenance is required. During disease outbreak disinfection is not possible with this type of flooring.
o Lime dressing and smearing of cow dung mixture will help in proper maintenance of floor. This floor will be sufficient for sheep and goat.

b. Design of floor
i). Solid floor
o It is a common floor with solid surface made out of different materials such as cement concrete, vitrified paving brick, building brick, stones and gravel.
o Such solid floors should be laid properly for good drainage.
o A slope of 1/40 to 1/60 is desirable towards the dung channel.
o Even surface with impervious quality is necessary to prevent
o water stagnation. Proper cleaning and disinfection are essential to control diseases.

ii). Deep litter floor
o It is made of bedding material as dried layers.
o Straw, paddy husk, saw dust groundnut hulls, dried leaves are spread on the floor used as litter materials.
o It can be spread as layer of 4-6 inches thickness and can be allowed to accumulate over a period of a month to 1 year.
o The litter get mixed with excreta and decomposed.
o The dried litter materials absorb the moisture. Hence bacterial activity is controlled.
o Excessive bacterial action in the deep litter is kept controlled by addition of lime.

ii). Building bricks
o They are sometimes used as a flooring material. They are not good floor materials. They absorb water and are easily worn out.
o They are set on edges closely and packed with good quality of cement.

HOUSING SYSTEMS

1. Housing of Cattle and Buffaloes
v In India, a great diversity exists in the design of dairy animal shelters.
v Traditional animal shelters have grown out of needs, resources and ingenuity of farmers.
v Building design and construction materials largely affect the thermal comfort inside dairy shelters.
v Efficiently designed sheds can help lesser the thermal stress thereby increasing feed intake, milk production and reproductive efficiency.
v Under varied climatic, geographical and economical conditions prevailing in India, designing an ideal set of building for dairy animals throughout the country is impossible.
v Hence, practically there are two systems of housing for dairy animals viz.
a. Loose housing and
b. Conventional barns

a. Loose Housing
v It is a system of housing in which animals are kept loose in an open paddock throughout the day and night except at the time of milking and treatment.
v In this system, shelter is provided along one side of open paddock under which animals can retire when it is very hot or cold or during rains.
v Common feed manger and water tank is provided and concentrates are fed at the milking time which is done in a separate milking barn or parlour in which cows are secured at milking time and are milked.
v The open paddock is enclosed by means of half walls or plain wire fences of convenient height.

Advantages
v Cost of construction is cheaper.
v Future expansion is possible.
v The animals will move freely so that it will get sufficient exercise.
v The animal can be kept clean.
v Common feeding and watering arrangement is possible.
v Clean milk production is possible because the animals are milked in a separate milking barn.
v Oestrus detection is easy.
v At least 10-15 percent more stock than standard can be accommodated for shorter period.

ii). Building bricks
o They are sometimes used as a flooring material. They are not good floor materials. They absorb water and are easily worn out.
o They are set on edges closely and packed with good quality of cement.

Disadvantages
v It is not suitable for temperate Himalayan region and heavy rainfall areas.
v It requires more floor space.
v There is competition for feed.
v Attention of individual animal is not possible.
v A separate milking barn is needed for milking of animals.

b. Conventional Barns or Stanchion Barns
v In this system of housing, the animals are confined together on a platform and secured at neck by stanchions or neck chain.
v The animals are fed as wells as milked in the same barn.
v These barns are completely covered with roofs and the sidewalls are closed with windows or ventilator located at suitable places to get more ventilation and lighting.
v It is applicable for temperate and heavy rainfall region.
v The same type of housing can be utilized for tropical region with slight modification.

Advantages
v The animals and men caring for animals are less exposed to harsh environment.
v The animals can be kept clean.
v Diseases are better controlled.
v Individual care can be given.
v Separate milking barn is not required.

Disadvantages
v Cost of construction is more.
v Future expansion is difficult.
v Not suitable for hot and humid climatic conditions.

2. Various Buildings or units required for a Dairy farm
Dairy cow building must have following parts
v Feeding passage
v Manger
v Standing space
v Gutter or drainage channel
v Milking passage

Main building units
v Milking barn or parlour
v Down calver shed / calving pen
v Calf pen
v Young stock or heifer shed
v Dry animal shed
v Bull shed
v Isolation shed
v Quarantine shed

ii). Building bricks
o They are sometimes used as a flooring material. They are not good floor materials. They absorb water and are easily worn out.
o They are set on edges closely and packed with good quality of cement.

Accessory buildings
v Store room
v Milk room
v Hay or straw shed

Main Building Units
1. Dairy cow building
The milch animal shed should have the following parts
• Feeding passage
• Manger
• Standing space
• Gutter or drainage channel
• Milking passage

Single row system
• In single row system, 12-16 numbers of animals can be kept.

Double row system
• If it is greater than 16, then double row system is preferable.
• In double row system up to 50 animals can be maintained in a single shed.
• The distance between two sheds should be greater than 30 feet or it should be twice the height of the building.

In double row system two methods available. They are
• Tail to tail or face–out method
• Head to head or face–in method

1. Tail to tail system
Advantages
v Cleaning and milking of animals easy.
v Supervision of milking also easy.
v Less chance for transmission of diseases from animal to animal.
v Animals can get more fresh air from outside.

2. Head to head system
Advantages
v Getting animals into the shed is easy.
v Feeding of animals also easy.
v Disinfection of gutter will be more due to the direct fall of sunrays over the gutter.
v Animals are better exhibited to visitors

ii). Building bricks
o They are sometimes used as a flooring material. They are not good floor materials. They absorb water and are easily worn out.
o They are set on edges closely and packed with good quality of cement.

Disadvantages
v Milking supervision is difficult.
v Possibilities of transmission of disease are more.

a. Milking barn or parlour
v This is a barn where milch animals are milked and is fully covered.
v It should be located at the centre of the farm with all other farm buildings arranged around it.
v There shall be an individual standing in the milking barns and the number of standings required should be 25% of total number of milch animals in the herd.
v The milking operation should be carried out in batches.

Dimensions of milking barn
v Length of standing space : 1.5 – 1.7 m
v Width of standing space : 1.05 – 1.2m (80% of length, of standing space)
v Width of central passage : 1.5 – 1.8 m
v Width of feed alley : 0.75 m
v Width of gutter : 0.30 m
v Overhang : 0.75 m

b. Down calver shed/ calving pen
v Pregnant animals are transferred to a calving pen 2 to 3 weeks before the expected date of calving.
v Calving pen of 3m x 4m (12 m2) is essential to keep the animals in advanced stage of pregnancy.
v It should be located nearer to the farmer’s quarters for better supervision.
v The number of calving pens required is 10% of the number of total breedable female stock in the farm.

c. Calf pen
v This is meant for housing young calves separately.
v It can be located either at the end or on the side of the milking barn.
v This facilitates taking calves to their dams quickly.
v If there are large numbers of calves, the separate unit of calf shed should be arranged and located nearer to the milking barn.

d. Young stock/ heifer shed
v It is meant for housing young heifers separately.
v Older heifers calves from about six months of age to breeding age are to be housed separately from the suckling calves.
v When a large number of young stocks are there, they should be divided into different age groups and each group housed separately.

e. Dry animal shed
v In large farms, milch and dry cows are housed separately.
v The floor in the covered area should preferably be made of cement concrete.
v Under Indian conditions, in smaller farms, milch and dry animals can be housed together.
v Normally, one third of the animals in a farm will be in dry or in dry cum pregnant stage.

f. Bull shed
v It is meant for housing bulls separately in a farm.
v It should be constructed towards one end of the farm.
v There shall be one shed for each bull.
v The number of bulls required being one for every 50 breedable females on the farm, if natural breeding is practiced.
v When artificial insemination service facilities are available, no necessary to keep the bulls on the farm.
v The bull shed shall have covered 3×4 metre dimensions, leading into a paddock of 120 square metres.

g. Isolation shed
v It is the separation of sick animals from apparently healthy animals to avoid transmission of diseases to healthy stock.
v It should be located at the corner of the shed.

h. Quarantine shed
v It should be located at the entrance of the farm.
v The newly purchased animals entering into the farm should be kept in quarantine shed for a minimum period of 30 to 40 days to watch out for any disease occurrence

Accessory buildings
a. Store room
v All the four walls should be closed and it should be rat proof.
v There should be one concrete store room with feed mixing unit at a distant place and a smaller feed store room behind the milking parlour.

b. Milk room
v It is essential to keep the milk and also to chill the milk in larger dairies having 400 to 700 litres production capacity that requires 3.7 m x 5m size of room and an additional 0.37 m2 for every 40 litres of milk production.
v For a smaller dairy unit below 100 litres a small room with a dimension of 3.75m x 3m can be sufficient for storing milk and concentrate feed.

c. Hay or straw shed
v An adult animal consume about 5 to 10 Kg of hay or straw per day, while young stock consume about 2 to 5 kg of hay or straw per day.
v The annual requirement can be calculated and the space requirement can be arrived.

HOUSING OF CALVES
v The main objective in planning and designing of calf housing is to provide an environment which will minimize the requirement for veterinary aid, minimize calf mortality and encourage the production of healthy calves.
v The calf housing should provide a suitable environment to both the calf as well as the stockman.

Fundamental requirements in a calf shed
• Provide dry bedding.
• Well ventilated environment.
• A specific minimum cubic air capacity per calf.
• A dry bed is important to reduce heat loss to the floor and minimize the use of straw.
• Moisture removal from a calf house is usually accompanied by a combination of drainage and ventilation.
• Good ventilation also removes the products such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and methane.
• The cubic air capacity per calf is important in all calf housing designs because it dilutes the intensity of disease producing organism in a building thus reducing the danger of cross infection.
• Height and space provided in the housing allows the air to be introduced into a calf house well above the level of calves thus, minimizing the risk of draught at calf level during winter months.
• If all-in all-out system is practiced proper disinfection and cleaning operation between batches should be ensured.
• A minimum period of 3 weeks between batches should be allowed.
• The age range in a group of calves should be narrow.
• Only calves from the similar background should be grouped together wherever practicable.

Types of housing
• The type of housing used for calf rearing varies from situation to situation.
• There is great diversity of opinion whether the calves should be reared in individual pen or in groups.
• In India, calves are generally reared in groups in ordinary stall barn or in the same house along with adult cattle.
• Even in organized farms, situation is not much different.
• In India, high level of calf mortality amounting between 30 to 40% in many farms can be attributable to this kind of housing and management of calves.
• Individual pens should be constructed so that they can be easily cleaned and disinfected.
• Individual pens provide effective separation for each calf.
• This prevents naval sucking and prevents the spread of disease through facial or other contact.
• If railed pen divisions are used, contact is not completely prevented so that they can able to see each other.
• But in other types of housing, the contact is completely prevented.
• It is better to keep the calves in individual pens at least 1 month, if possible, up to 3 months.
• After 3 months, 3 to 5 calves are kept in single pen. After 6 months to breedable age, the animals are kept in singles.
• After 6 months of age the male calves are usually disposed for either breeding or slaughter purpose.
• For ease of management, calf shed or calf unit should be placed adjacent to the dairy unit.

HOUSING OF BULLS
v Bull is half of the herd, is literally true in the sense that the dairy bull contributes the off-spring half of the herd’s genotype.
v In hot regions, the bull’s semen production is affected if it has not been properly housed.
v So, adequate, well facilitated bull house is needed to improve the breeding efficiency in a dairy farm.
v Bulls are housed in pen and yard system. Bulls must be housed individually; it may be housed in singe row or double row system.

Purpose
v To protect from inclement weather and for safety and easy handling.
v Provisions for exercise.
v To improve the reproductive efficiency in the dairy farm.

Floor space requirement
v In the covered area 12m2 per bull can be provided and the open exercise yard 120m2 per bull.
v If open yard is not provided the bull exerciser is needed.

Construction principles
Wall
v In an enclosed loose box, the solid wall should be constructed with the height of 1.5 meter and above these walls two or three horizontal tubular rods with the gap of 20 to 30 cm are fixed.

Floor
v Flooring should be laid properly for bulls because this will help to reduce the hoof problem.
v Floor can be constructed with rough cement concrete and should have a gradient slope of 1/40 to 1/60 to have easy accessibility to the drainage channel.
v In hot regions, the floor should be cool in summer and should insulate the heat properly.
v Generally, vitrified paving bricks can be used in order to prevent slippery floors.

Roof
v Gable or monitor roof with eaves of 2.5 – 3 m height should be provided and ridge height should be 3.2 – 3.5 m.
v Roofing material used for the bull shed in hot regions should be of good insulating property and poor conductivity of heat.
v Generally, asbestos or galvanized iron sheets are used as the roofing materials.

Fittings and facilities
Manger
v A cement concrete manger with the dimension of 60 cm width, 40 cm depth and 50 cm height of inner wall should be provided inside the bull shed.
v The essential part of fitting in the manger is construction or provision of yoke or tubular stanchions set over the manger.

Water trough
v The bull shed should have a water trough with the dimension of about 60 to 75 cm length.
v The best method for watering in bull shed is by automatic water bowl.

Doorway
v Each bull box should have a main entrance of the half door type 4 feet width and 7feet height, the upper part of the doorway having two strong bars across the opening to prevent any possibility of a bull jumping the lower door when the upper half is left open.
v Provision should be made on the opposite end of the box for a means of exit, either to a feeding passage or yard.

Yard
v A yard is an open area for the bull and should be of 120m2 and the yard should be enclosed on all sides by 0.3 m solid wall and iron tubular rods as partitions to a height of 1.2 m placed at 0.25 m intervals.
v A doorway of 1.2 m width is provided at the end of the yard. The yard should have the floor with cement concrete type and should be grooved and roughened properly and should have easy access to the drainage system.
v The bull yard is provided for the bulls for the purpose of exercise and also they can view the other animals of the herd so that the feeling of isolation can be avoided for the bulls.

Service crate
v The exercise yard should also communicate with a service crate through a swing gate which serves the use of an attendant to bring the bull to the service crate.
v The semen collection yard and processing laboratory should be close to the bull house.
v One bull is required for 50 breedable cows. If, AI is practised there is no need for maintaining bulls.

Protection against hot climatic conditions
v The libido and semen quality of bull vary with season and they decrease during summer due to hot weather.
v Bull should be housed in cool and well ventilated shed.
v Showering or splashing of cold water 2-3 times during hotter part of the day is also effective.
v The bulls can be taken for grazing or exercise in the early morning or late evening i.e., cooler part of the day.
v Planting quick growing tall trees around the shed to provide natural shade and good ventilation which will also reduce the effect of unfavorable solar radiation.
v Spreading straw over the roof may reduce the heat inside the animal house.
v The upper surface of the roof may be painted with white or light coloured material to reflect the heat.
v The underside of the roof may be painted with black or dark colour.
Organic Dairy Feeding Standards

Dairy Animal Nutrition standards for Organic Dairy Farming
1. Dairy animals under ODF should meet their nutritional requirements from organic forage and feed only.
Nutrition and Feeding
The animals should be fed 100 per cent organically grown feed and fodder without use of chemical pesticides or artificial fertilizers and is free from genetically modified organisms, and manure/fertilizer should come from organically kept animals and more than 50 per cent of the feed shall come from the farm unit itself or shall be produced within the region except under very unusual circumstances such as a national, state or local weather emergency or a fire or flood on an organic farm.
Among the allowed (acceptable) materials are: feed raised by organic production practices, natural vitamin and mineral supplements, and fresh water from sources where contamination is unlikely.
However, in some cases 15 per cent of total feed could be obtained from conventional farms. The use of conventional feeds, synthetic growth promoters or stimulants, synthetic appetizers, preservatives, artificial colouring agents, urea, farm animal by products to ruminants, all types of excreta, feed subjected to solvent extraction or the addition of other chemical agents, pure amino acids, and genetically engineered organisms or products thereof are not allowed.

Synthetic milk replacers are prohibited. Calves must be fed on organic milk only.

To maintain healthy animals, consistency in management and nutrition goes a long way, and may be more critical than exactly meeting all nutritional requirements.

2. Dairy animals under ODF should be fed either home grown organic feed or organically certified readymade concentrate feed of good quality.
3. In no case the percentage of non-organic feed should exceed 10% of dry matter per ruminant under ODF.
Exceptions
Organic dairy farmers may feed a limited percentage (not more than 10% dry matter per ruminant) of non-organic feed under specific conditions such as areas where organic agriculture is in early stages of development/ when availability of organic feed is of inadequate quantity or quality/ grazing of non-organic grass or vegetation during seasonal migration.

Permitted
A dairy farmer may feed a higher percentage (more than 10% dry matter per ruminant) of non-organic feed for a limited time under specific conditions, such as following extreme and exceptional weather conditions/ manmade or natural disasters beyond the control of the dairy farmers?

4. Prohibited
Feeding of farm animal wastes and byproducts (e.g. abattoir waste) to dairy animals is prohibited in organic dairy farming.

Feeding of all types of excrements including droppings, dung or other manure to dairy animals are prohibited in organic dairy farming.

Feeding of urea and other synthetic nitrogen compounds like amino acids to dairy animals are prohibited in organic dairy farming.

Feeding of preservatives, except when used as a processing aid to dairy animals are prohibited in ODF.

Feeding of synthetic growth promoters or stimulants to dairy animals are prohibited in ODF.

Antimicrobial Agents: The term “antimicrobial growth promoter” is used to describe any medicine that destroys or inhibits microbes and is administered at a low, sub therapeutic dose. The use of antimicrobial for growth promotion has arisen with the intensification of livestock farming.
Risks of antimicrobial growth promoters: The use of growthpromoters is largely a problem of intensive farming methods and the problems caused by their use are largely those of developed rather than developing countries in response to the emergence of antibiotic resistance.
Risks of ionophores growth promoters: Generally, ionophores have been found safe and effective in the target animals receiving recommended dosage levels . However, toxic syndromes can result from over dosage and misuse situations.

5. Allowed
• Animals under ODF may be fed vitamins, trace elements and supplements from natural sources.
• Under ODF may be fed synthetic vitamins, minerals and supplements when natural sources are not available in sufficient quantity and quality.

6. As per ODF standards, young stock (calves) of dairy animals should be provided maternal milk or organic milk from their own species.

7. Under organic dairy farming, young stock (calves) of dairy animals should be weaned only after a minimum period of 3 months.
v Weaning is defined as “the accustom (an infant or other young mammal) to food other than its mother’s milk”. Essentially, the babies are removed from their mothers and placed on a man-made feeding system. This process takes place within many farming operations, such as dairy, sheep, goats etc.
v Dairy calves are separated from their dam soon after they are born in most dairy operations. In some there is no contact between calf and cow for health related reasons, such as preventing Johne’s disease.
v The main purpose of separating dairy cows from their calves to allow collection and selling of milk. The calves are then fed colostrum from the dam for the first few days, and then milk replacer. Dairy calves do not have ab libitum milk like beef calves.
v By limiting the amount of milk the calves receive it caused the calves to consume more feed which leads to faster development of the rumen.

Advantages of Early Weaning
v Dams of early weaned calves are in better condition at calving and that carries over to breeding season.
v Calves can be fed to grow to their genetic potential when forage conditions are not optimal for the dam.
v It may be the key to more efficient feed use during times of drought or other periods of feed shortage.
v Early weaned calves are very efficient of converting feed to gain.
v A high percentage of early weaned calves fed a growing ration for a short period of time then stepped-up on a high concentrate diet can achieve a USDA Quality Grade of average choice or better.
v Early weaning permits more cows to be carried on a limited forage supply.
v Calves weaned before or very early in the breeding season, pregnancy rates will be greater for thin cows.

Disadvantages of Early Weaning
v Excellent calf nutrition and management is required.
v More labor is necessary.
v The facilities and feed must be available for small calves.
v Calves spend a lot of time in a dry lot prior to slaughter.
v If you have developed a cow herd that has above average milk output, the potential increase in weaning weights through milk production is not realized.
v Information on dam performance from production records will be of limited use.

Colostrum feeding

Colostrum Feeding
v Colostrum is the first milk secreted after parturition.
v It contains large amount of Gama globulins which are anit-bodies produced by the cow against antigens encounter during her life including those against many disease producing organisms.
v Colostrums is highly fortified source of nutrient having 7 times the protein and twice the total solids of normal milk, thus it gives an early boost in portion and solid intake.
v It contain higher amount of minerals and vitamin A which are essential to combat disease. Ingestion of these through colostrums substantially increases the calf’s survivability.
v Absorption of these antibodies provides the calf with an umbrella of passive immunity.
v Colostrums give a laxative effect which is helpful in expulsion of muconium (first faeces).
v It will be highly useful to feed colostrum in the first 15-30 minutes followed by a second dose in approximately 10-12 hours.
v First ½ hour to 12 hours of life, calf should be given with colostrum of its 5-8 % of body weight. Then 2nd and 3rd day, it should be of 10% of its body weight.
v The excess colostrums can be stored by refrigeration and can be used to other calves or orphan calves.

Composition of Colostrum

Weaning

• Separation of calf and making independent of its mother for food is known as weaning.
• Now days, early weaning is recommended for better management.
• Under early weaning system, weaned calves housed separately and scientific feeding schedule and managemental practices followed.
• In this method, the cow is not allowed to suckle by its calf after colostrum feeding.
• Instead, the cow is completely milked out and required quantities of whole milk or skim milk are fed to the calf.
• Weaned calves should be trained to drink milk from pails / nipple pail so that feeding management is easier.
• Weaned calves should be weighed every week and the quantity of milk to be fed is calculated accordingly.
Feeding Of Dairy Animals

Fodder Production

Legume Fodder
1. Cowpea / Lobia –
v It is an annual crop.
v This crop is grown in tropics, sub-tropics and warm temperature regions.
v It is grown for feeding in green form, for hay making or for ensiling in mixtures with sorghum or maize.
v It can be grown during kharif, Rabi and summer seasons.
v It is suitable for year round cultivation.
v Varieties include Co 5, Russian giant, EC 4216, UPC – 287 and local varieties.
v Recommended seed rate – 40 kg/ha.
v Harvest 50-55 days after sowing (50% flowering stage).
v Variety Co 5 is suitable for growing under irrigated conditions (June – July).

2. Lucerne
v Lucerne is also termed `Queen of forages’
. v It is a deep rooted perennial forage legume adapted to a wide range of conditions ranging from tropical to alpine.
v It is very palatable and nutritious forage legume containing 15 – 20% crude protein on dry matter basis.
v Lucerne adds nitrogen to soil and improves soil fertility.
v It is grown for green fodder, hay, silage but does not tolerate close grazing.
v Varieties include Anand 2, Sirsa – 9, IGFRI S – 244, and Co 1.
v Variety Co1 is suitable for growing during July – December.
v Not suitable for very hot and very cold climates.
v Recommended seed rate –20 kg/ha.
v First harvest 75 – 80 days after sowing. Subsequent harvests are made at intervals of 25 – 30 days.

3. Stylo
v Stylo is an erect growing perennial forage legume native of Brazil.
v It grows 0.6 to 1.8 m tall.
v Stylo is adapted to tropical climate and tolerant to low fertility soils acidic soils and soils with poor drainage.
v Stylos are drought resistant legumes coming up well in areas receiving a minimum rainfall of 450 – 840 mm annually.
v The crude protein content of stylos ranges from 15 to 18%.
v Season is June – July to September – October.
v For line sowing (30 x 15 cm), the seed rate is 6 kg/ha and for broadcasting 10 kg/ha.
v First harvest can be taken 75 days after sowing at flowering stage and subsequent harvests depending upon the growth.
v It is to be noted that during the first year, the establishment after sowing is very slow and the yield is low.
v Later on when the crop establishes well due to self seeding it yields 30 to 35 t/ha/year from the third year onwards.
v Stylo is a good pasture legume.

Cereal Fodder
1. Fodder maize –
v Maize is an annual crop.
v It is grown on a variety of soils, but well drained fertile soils are best suited.
v Maize is mostly grown as KHARIF crop i.e. sowing in June – July. In south India it makes best growth in RABI and also in SUMMER.
v It can be grown throughout the year with irrigation facility.
v African tall, Vijay composite, Moti composite, Ganga – 5 and Jawahar are some important fodder varieties.
v Maintain a seed rate of 40 kg/ha and dibble one seed to a spacing of 15cm between the seeds in the row which are 30 cm apart.
v The average green fodder yield is 40-50 t/ha and the dry matter yield is 10-15 t/ha.
v Staggered sowing is recommended for supply of green fodder for a long period.
v Harvest the crop when the cob is in the milky stage.

2. Fodder sorghum – / Jowar
v It is cultivated mainly for grain and also for fodder.
v Sorghum is a drought resistant annual crop.
v It thrives in tropical climate with a temperature range of 25-35oC.
v It is not suited to higher elevations (more than 1200 m).
v It can be grown under an annual rainfall of 300-350 mm.
v It can be grown on any soil except on very sandy soils.
v Suitable varieties for Irrigated (Jan – Feb and Apr – May) are Co.11, Co. 27, Co.F.S. 29
v Suitable varieties for Rainfed conditions (Jun – Jul) are Co.11, Co27, Co.F.S.29
v Suitable varieties for Rainfed (Sep – Oct) are K7, Co.27, Co.F.S. 29,K 10
v Co.F.S. 29 is a multicut variety and released by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University during 2001. It is cross between TNFS 9602 and Sudan grass.
v Seed rate is 40 kg/ha (only 12.5 kg/ha for Co.F.S. 29).
v Sorghum can be harvested after flowering stage for green fodder.
v If it is a single cut, it should be harvested at 60-65 days (50% flowering) after sowing and if it is a multicut, the first cut is 60 days after sowing and subsequently once in 40 days.
v For Co. F.S. 29, each harvest has to be done at 65 days interval (5 harvests in a year).

Grass Fodder
1. Hybrid Napier – Bajra Napier Hybrid
v This is a perennial grass fodder.
v It possesses more tillers and leaves than Napier grass and is more vigorous and higher in fodder yield and quality.
v Crude protein ranges from 8 to 11%.

Tree Fodder
1. Subabul – Soundal (Koobabul)
v This is fast spreading fodder tree which produces enormous seeds.
v Suitable season for sowing is June-July.
v Varieties- Hawaiian giant (lvory coast) and Co1.
v Rainfed: (Sep – Oct) K 8, Giant lpil – lpil and Co 1.
v Plants can be harvested in as early as 6 months after planting. However, the initial cutting should not be done until the trunk has attained at least 3 cm diameter or the plant has completed one seed production cycle.
v Harvests can be repeated once in 40 – 80 days depending upon growth and season.
v In drought prone areas, allow the trees to grow for two years to ensure deep root penetration before commencing harvest.
v The trees can be cut at 90 to 100 cm height from ground level.
v As green fodder under irrigated conditions, a pure crop yields about 80 to 100 t/ha of green fodder.
v Under rainfed conditions 40 t/ha of green fodder is got after 2 years of initial growth and pruning to a height of 100 cm.

2. Sesbania – Agathi
v The leaves of Sesbania trees are highly palatable and mostly liked by goats.
v The protein content in this is about 25%.
v Grown throughout the year under irrigation.
v Comes up in soils with good drainage.
v Seed rate is 7.5 kg /ha, sow the seeds at a spacing of 100 cm x 100 cm (100 cm between ridges and 100 cm between plants within the ridge).
v First cut after 8 months and subsequent harvests at an interval of 60-80 days.
v Green fodder yield of 100 tonnes per year is obtained from one hectare.

Feeding Management of Cattle and Buffalo
Feed ingredients

CEREAL GRAIN
Maize or corn (Zea mays)
v Maize has high metabolisable energy value with low fibre content.
v It has 8-13% of crude protein.
v It has high TDN of 85%
v Recently, new variety of maize (Floury 2) was produced with high methionine and lysine.
v Farm animals are fed with crushed maize.
v Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid proportion in rumen and hence depresses the butterfat content of milk.
v Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content are prone to aspergillus flavus infestation and produces aflatoxin.

Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides)
• Nutritive value of Bajra is similar to Sorghum
• They have 8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.
• Seeds are hard so it has to be ground or crushed before fed to cattle.
Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare)
• Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical composition.
• They have higher protein and low fat than maize.
• Cattle are fed with ground Sorghum.

Rice (Oryza sativa)
• The crude protein and energy values are comparable to maize.
• It is widely used for human consumption.
• Based on the cost, it can be included in animal feed.

Oats (Avena sativa)
v Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 – 16% with 7-15% of crude protein.
v Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient in oats but abundant in glutamic acid.
v Cattles are fed with crushed or bruised oats.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
• Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude protein
• It has low lysine and less than 2% of oil content.
• Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening animals in UK.
• Verity “Notch 2” developed at UK is rich in lysine.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
• Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein.
• The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is referred as gluten.
• Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since it form dough, which traps the gasses, produced during yeast fermentation.
• Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in the mouth and may lead to digestive upset.
• Do not feed finely ground wheat to farm animals.

VEGETABLE PROTEINS
Groundnut oil cake
• Groundnut oilcake is one of the best protein supplements for livestock feeding and is extensively used.
• Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.
• Groundnut oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.
• The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.
• Groundnut oilcake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in cystein, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium.

Groundnut oil cake
• Groundnut oilcake is one of the best protein supplements for livestock feeding and is extensively used.
• Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.
• Groundnut oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are available in the market.
• The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.
• Groundnut oilcake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in cystein, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium.

Aflatoxin affection
• In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.
• Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage from growing crop to the formulated feed or stored raw material.
• Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A.parasiticus on food and feed materials.
• Presence of oxygen, conducive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favours the mould growth.
• High moisture in the crop, which harvested around wet period and also inadequately dried products, favours the fungal growth and toxin production.
• There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2 and G2 out which B1 is most toxic.
• The most common symptoms in the affected animals are liver damage with marked bile duct proliferation, liver necrosis and hepatic tumors while the other symptoms include gastritis and kidney dysfunction.

Soybean meal
• Soybean meal contains 44% proteins with all indispensable amino acids except cystein and methionine since the concentrations are sub optimal.
• It can be fed to all livestock up to 30% of the ration.
• The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.
• Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans have number of toxic and inhibitory substances.
• These toxic, inhibitory substances and other factors in soybean like saponins can be inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.

Sunflower oil cake
• Sunflower oilcake contains 40% of protein with low lysine and twice the amount of methionine than soy protein.
• It has very short self-life.
• The expeller variety of Sunflower seed meal or cake has high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, when fed in large amount to cows it makes butter soft.
• It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level.
• Sunflower oilcake is not recommended for calves.
Cotton seed meal
• It has a good quality of protein but with low content of cystein, methionine and lysine.
• The calcium to phosphorous ratio is about 1:6, so calcium deficiency may occur.
• Lactating cows can be fed with cotton seed meal but when it was given large amount, milk may become hard and firm, so butter made from such milk fat is difficult churn and may also tend to develop tallow taints.
• Both decorticated cottonseed oilcake as well as undecorticated cottonseed oilcake are available in the market with two grades (Grade I & II) in each varity.
• Cottonseed meal contains 0.3-20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment known as Gossypol, a polyphenolic aldehyde.
• It is an antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor.
• It is toxic to simple stomached animals and the symptoms include depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to cardiac failure.
• Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium hydroxide and iron salts.
• Shearing effect of screw press in expeller process is an efficient gossypol inactivator.
Coconut meal
• It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-6.5% oil content.
• The higher oil meals tend to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence low oil content meal should be preferred.
• It should be restricted to swine and poultry as it contains low protein and high fibre and low fibre coconut meal can be fed to monogastric animals with lysine and methionine supplements.
• Coconut meal produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.
Linseed meal
v Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also rich in phosphorous part of which is present as phytase but has only moderate calcium content.
v It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline.
v It also has protective action against selenium poisoning.
v Linseed oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market.
v Among the oilseed residues linseed is unique because it readily dispersible in water, forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-10% of mucilage.
v Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associated enzyme, linase in immature linseed hydrolyses it with the evolution of hydrocyanic acid.
v HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and hence, depending on the species the minimum lethal dose taken orally has been estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight.
v Proper water washing, drying and storage can reduce glycosides in the feedstuffs.
v Linseed oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two verities (Grade I; grade II) are available in the market.
v Linseed oilcake/meal is a good food to ruminants.
Mustard cake
v It is widely used cattle feed in Northern India.
v Its nutritive value is lesser than groundnut cake.
v D.C.P and T.D.N values are 27% and 74 % respectively.
v It can be included up to 10% of the ration;
v It has rich calcium and phosphorous content of about 0.6% and 0.1% respectively.
Sesame seed meal / Gingelly oil cake / Til oil cake
• It contains 40% protein, rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low lysine.
• It was produced from the residues of sesame meal after removal of oil from sesame seed.
• There are three verities – red, black, white.
• White is of high nutritive value than red.
• It has high phytic acid.
• Sesame seed meal has laxative action and can be included in the cattle ration upto 15%.

MILLING BY PRODUCTS
Rice bran
• It is the outer coarse coat of the rice grain separated during processing.
• Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.
• The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in market for livestock feeding.
Wheat bran
• Wheat bran is an excellent food with more fibre content.
• It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counter act scouring when it was given dry.
• It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility.

Polishing
• During rice polishing this by products accumulates which contains 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.
• It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.
• Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.
Molasses
• It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared from selected plant material.
• It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicelluloses and minerals.
• Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz. cane molasses, beet molasses, citrus molasses and wood molasses.
• Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10% ash.
• Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher protein (6%).
• Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when oranges or grapes are processed for juice.
• Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein and palatable to cattle.
• Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.
• It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.
• Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration.
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FAT
v Fat (Vegetable/Animal) provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate or protein. v Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and lessens the wear on feed mixing equipments. v Vegetable oil like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow are extensively used in livestock feeding. v Animal fat contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, and C24. v Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of linoleic acid. v Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids leads to rancidity and therefore anti oxidants like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.
Feeding dairy cow
v Feed alone constitute 60 per cent of the production cost of milk. Hence, feeding management play a vital role in farm economy.
v The nutrient requirement should be determined for maintenance as well as for milk production and to meet the fat percentage in milk and gestation.
v Based on the nutrient requirement ration should be computed.
v In general the dry matter from roughage should not exceed 2 per cent of cow’s live weight nor should it be less than 1 per cent

Feeding dairy cow at different stages of lactation
• Under practical feeding condition it is not possible to select much among the roughages or vary the ingredient in concentrate mix.
• The farm manger should carefully plan a cropping programme to ensure year round supply of mixture of leguminous and non leguminous forages.
• One feeding schedule based on thump rule is

Early lactation
v The recently calved high producing cow is unable to eat enough feed to support her milk production.
v This means that the cow should have enough reserve to store nutrient to be drawn to tide over the period of heavy demand in early lactation, during which period the cow loses weight.

Challenge feeding
v Challenge feeding means the cow with high milk production potential are to be fed increase quantity of concentrate to ‘challenge’ them to produce to the maximum.
v This starts two weeks before expected date of calving. This challenge feeding will condition her digestive system for the increased amount of concentrate and provide enough nutrients to initiate lactation on a higher plane.
v Two weeks before the expected date of calving start feeding 500 g of concentrate mixture.
v The quantity should be increased daily by 300-400 g until the cow is consuming 500-1000g concentrate for every 100 kg body weight.
v After calving, the concentrate allowance should be increased by 500 g per day in the first 2 weeks of lactation until the cow achieves peak yield somewhere in the second month of lactation on free choice basis.
v After this the milk yield is tested and the concentrate allowance is fixed accordingly. Challenge feeding schedule:

Feeding during mid and late lactation
v The nutrient deficit period of early lactation is followed by a relatively stable period during which the cow can consume enough feed to meet the various demands for nutrients and the body weight of the cow remains more or less stable.
v During this period the cow maybe fed a well balanced ration of god quality fodder and concentrate according to the milk yield and fat percentage of milk.
v During the late lactation, intake ability of the cow exceeds nutrient needs. This is the time when the cow starts needing extra allowance for the growing foetus.
v This is also the period when the cow can readily replenish the already depleted body reserve and gain weight very fast.
v From 7 ½ month to 10 months of lactation, cow may be fed 1-2 kg concentrate feed in addition to their nutrient requirement for maintenance and milk production to replenish the condition lost in early lactation.

Feeding high producing dairy cows
v High producing dairy cow should eat a large volume of nutrient daily to sustain th milk production at that level.
v This is simply not possible with bulky forages alone due to physical limitation of volume intake (space in the rumen).
v If high level of concentrate is fed it may change the microbial and chemical atmosphere of the rumen and cause dysfunction.
v Rumen fermentation can be controlled by a) composition of ration b) ratio of ingredients in the ration c) quantity of feed supplied d) frequency of feeding and e) physical form of feed.
v For a high producer the forage fed should of superior quality which also reduces the quantity of concentrate required.
v Crude fibre is very important in the ration of milking cow because it is well known that rumen fermentation leading to acetic acid production is dependent on the percentage of cellulose in the ration.
v Cows need acetic acid for maintaining normal milk fat percentage as well as total milk production.
v Ruminant ration should contain a minimum of 20-25 per cent crude fibre.
v Higher percentage of grain in the ration reduce cellulose digestibility and cause disturbances like depressed milk fat, depressed milk production and in extreme cases damage to the rumen wall, development of acidosis and death.
v Frequency of feeding: dividing the daily ration into 3 or 4 parts and feeding them in so many installments has been found to be useful in overcoming this problem.
v This also results in greater digestibility and better utilization of protein apart from preventing explosive release of acids.
v A high concentrate ration induces less amount of saliva flow compared to roughages.
v But when feed is given in 4 or 5 installments the proportion of Na and K salts in rumen return to normal.
Feeding dry cow
v Feed alone constitute 60 per cent of the production cost of milk. Hence, feeding management play a vital role in farm economy. v The nutrient requirement should be determined for maintenance as well as for milk production and to meet the fat percentage in milk and gestation. v Based on the nutrient requirement ration should be computed. v In general the dry matter from roughage should not exceed 2 per cent of cow’s live weight nor should it be less than 1 per cent.

Mixing of concentrates and roughages
v v Traditionally, concentrate are fed at the time of milking. Roughages re offered either before or after milking.
v In high producers, when concentrates are fed in heavy doses at milking time, the appetite of the cows will be reduced temporarily and they may not eat roughages for some time.
v Consequent, there will be 4 different fermentation, two primarily due to concentrate and two primarily of roughages.
v The feeding of concentrates separately from roughages during a four time feeding schedule reduces acidic acid production and increases propionic acid.
v It has been observed that feeding grain on top of silage increased the fat percentage of milk production.
v Feeding concentrates either on top of forages or mixed with forages has been four to favour optimum rumen fermentation.
v This has led to the concept of complete feeds which incorporates both roughages and concentrates.
Complete feeding
v In order to simplify feeding of dairy cows complete diet system have been introduced.
v Complete diet is an intimate mixture of concentrate and roughages in a desired proportion processed in such a way as to preclude selective eating. It forms the sole source of food for the cow.
v It reduces labour requirement and keeps a tighter control on the cow’s nutrition.
v It also facilitates the application of least cost method of ration formulation.
v Feeding of complete diet ad libitum to dairy cow has been found to be advantageous in that it increases feed intake, preserve milk quality as result in better utilization of nitrogen.
v These are in addition to the most obvious advantage of prevention acidosis from over-eating of concentrate by high producer.
v The complete diet feeding system is radically different from conventional feeding method in that there is no individual approach in feeding cows.
v Group feeding is practiced in complete feeding system. There are also fewer changes in diet formulation according to the milk yield.
v This has come as a result of the experimental and practical feeding observation that yield and efficiency are not improved by individual rationing compared to flat rate feeding of cows grouped according to milk yield or stage of lactation.
Recommended Nutrient inclusions for Cattle and Buffaloes

Major minerals
Calcium
Role of Calcium
• 99% of the calcium in the body is present in the bones and teeth.
• Calcium controls the excitability of nerves and muscles.
• Calcium is required for normal clotting of blood.
• Calcium is necessary for activation of enzymes like trypsin, adenosine triphosphatase.
Clinical signs
• In young animals calcium deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
• In adult animals calcium deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
• Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
• Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
• Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition in dairy cows shortly after calving, is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level, muscular spasms, and in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness.

Supplementation
• Ground limestone
• Steamed bone meal
• Dicalcium phosphate and
• Green leafy crops, especially legumes, are good sources of calcium.
Phosphorus
Role of Phosphorus
• Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone.
• Phosphorus plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates. ( ADP & ATP).
• Phosphorus plays a key role in metabolic reaction of carbohydrate, protein and lipids which occurs through phosphorylated intermediate compounds.
• Phosphorus is the component of phospholipids, which are important in lipid transport and metabolism as constituent of cell membranes.
• Phosphorus is constituent of RNA and DNA.
• Phosphorus is a component of many enzyme systems.
Clinical signs
• In young animals phosphorus deficiency causes rickets, characterised by misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
• In adult animals phosphorus deficiencies produces Osteomalacia, characterised by weak bones, fragile and are easily broken.
• Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary.
• Pigeon chested appearance is a symptom due to enlargement of sternum.
• ‘Pica’ or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when there is a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials.
• In chronic phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
• Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility, apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of oestrus.

Supplementation
• Cereal grains.
• Fish meal and
• Meat products
Magnesium
• Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus.
• Essential constituent of bone and teeth.
• Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator.
• Magnesium plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation leading to ATP formation.
• Magnesium is necessary in metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and in the biosynthesis of proteins.
Clinical signs
• In adult ruminants low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) causes a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany /magnesium tetany /lactation tetany / grass staggers.
• It is characterized by nervousness, tremors, twitching of the facial muscles, staggering gait and convulsions.

Supplementation
• Wheat bran
• Dried yeast
• Cottonseed cake
• Linseed cake
• The mineral supplement most frequently used is magnesium oxide, which is sold commercially as calcined magnesite.

Feeding allowances

Advantages of Early Weaning
v Dams of early weaned calves are in better condition at calving and that carries over to breeding season.
v Calves can be fed to grow to their genetic potential when forage conditions are not optimal for the dam.
v It may be the key to more efficient feed use during times of drought or other periods of feed shortage.
v Early weaned calves are very efficient of converting feed to gain.
v A high percentage of early weaned calves fed a growing ration for a short period of time then stepped-up on a high concentrate diet can achieve a USDA Quality Grade of average choice or better.
v Early weaning permits more cows to be carried on a limited forage supply.
v Calves weaned before or very early in the breeding season, pregnancy rates will be greater for thin cows.

Disadvantages of Early Weaning
v Excellent calf nutrition and management is required.
v More labor is necessary.
v The facilities and feed must be available for small calves.
v Calves spend a lot of time in a dry lot prior to slaughter.
v If you have developed a cow herd that has above average milk output, the potential increase in weaning weights through milk production is not realized.
v Information on dam performance from production records will be of limited use.

Colostrum feeding

Colostrum Feeding
v Colostrum is the first milk secreted after parturition.
v It contains large amount of Gama globulins which are anit-bodies produced by the cow against antigens encounter during her life including those against many disease producing organisms.
v Colostrums is highly fortified source of nutrient having 7 times the protein and twice the total solids of normal milk, thus it gives an early boost in portion and solid intake.
v It contain higher amount of minerals and vitamin A which are essential to combat disease. Ingestion of these through colostrums substantially increases the calf’s survivability.
v Absorption of these antibodies provides the calf with an umbrella of passive immunity.
v Colostrums give a laxative effect which is helpful in expulsion of muconium (first faeces).
v It will be highly useful to feed colostrum in the first 15-30 minutes followed by a second dose in approximately 10-12 hours.
v First ½ hour to 12 hours of life, calf should be given with colostrum of its 5-8 % of body weight. Then 2nd and 3rd day, it should be of 10% of its body weight.
v The excess colostrums can be stored by refrigeration and can be used to other calves or orphan calves.

Composition of Colostrum

Weaning

• Separation of calf and making independent of its mother for food is known as weaning.
• Now days, early weaning is recommended for better management.
• Under early weaning system, weaned calves housed separately and scientific feeding schedule and managemental practices followed.
• In this method, the cow is not allowed to suckle by its calf after colostrum feeding.
• Instead, the cow is completely milked out and required quantities of whole milk or skim milk are fed to the calf.
• Weaned calves should be trained to drink milk from pails / nipple pail so that feeding management is easier.
• Weaned calves should be weighed every week and the quantity of milk to be fed is calculated accordingly.
Development of organic feeding system for milk production
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost, and biological pest control.
Organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) if they are considered natural (such as bone meal from animals or pyrethrin from flowers), but it excludes or strictly limits the use of various methods (including synthetic petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides; plant growth regulators such as hormones; antibiotic use in livestock; genetically modified organisms, human sewage sludge; and nano materials) for reasons including sustainability, openness, independence, health, and safety.

Standard as guidelines:
• IFOAM basic standards
• Indian standard—- Strictly followed NPOP system, standards and guidelines.

Process for organic fodder production…..
• Fix the standards, system of production, area and requirements, livestock followed NPOP)
• Primary analysis of soil, water and livestock physiology (Analysis for heavy metals and micronutrients)
• Certification agency and collaborators (FOLLOWED SGS)
• Conversion of conventional field to organic at least 3 yrs.
• Prepare farm plan information on area locality, planting materials
• Soil fertility and crop management
• Manures and fertilizers along with sources
• Pest control and management
• Irrigation and weed control
• Farm processing, harvest, storage, transport and marketing
• Animal husbandry-Nos, breed, feed and fodder used, housing, vaccination and deworming, fly and rat control in shed, dung disposal, Forage conservation
• Disease control, history of any synthetic hormone, antibiotic used
• Manure management
• Milk handling
• All animal records
• Animal identification system
• Transport and Marketing of products
• Maps and all documents of transaction

Organic milk production strategies….
v Preferred indigenous breed of cattle- Gir, Tharparkar, Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffaloes-for high adaptability
v Organic fodder and feed production
v Soil, water and nutrient management
v Fertilizers-FYM, Green manure, Vermi compost, mulching
v Crop/fodder rotation
v Animal health management through vaccination, herbal deworming, herbal/ homaeopathic treatment, limited life saving drugs
v Welfare through spacing, grazing, ad lib feeding, watering and natural services
v Herbal pest management
v Use of legumes in pasture

Standard Protocols.
v Conversion of conventional field to organic field using biofertilizers by 36 months.
v Production of feed and forages in situ.
v All input and out analysis to maintain residue levels BDL.
v Follow NPOP standard.
v Follow standard animal husbandry practice.
v Approach certification agency after 1 yr of start of project.
v Maintain standard in situ.

Fertilization:
A. Production of Farm Yard Manure in a separate area without contamination and dung produced from animal fed organic feed and fodder produced in the system.
B. Green mulching in the system.
C. Vermicompost production (Earth worm- I foetida)

Application of fertilizers: FYM @ 20 t/ha, top dressing with vermicompost @ 1 t/ha, calculated following standard NPK requirement for a particular crop. Use of Pesticide: Herbal—- Neem oil

Starting of Organic Milk Production Process:
1. Select Indigenous breed of cattle either available at your locality or suitable Indian cattle breed like Gir, Tharparkar or Sahiwal.
2. Calculate requirement of Feed & Forage for those animal.. Viz.

Step C: Analysis of Inputs and out puts:
v Chemical analysis for composition from standard laboratory for Input utilized like Soil, Water. FYM etc.
v Analysis of output like – milk, fodder, grains or any product.

Step D: Animal Housing and management:
v Space per animal should be given as per Indian standard( >ISI standard, we have given double the ISI space).
v Housing should be loose type East-West direction.
v Vaccination and deworming allowed as per NPOP norms.
v Treatment of illness will be through Ayurvedic or organic means.
v If life saving drugs used- animal should be withdrawn from system up to 30 days of last treatment used.
v Drinking water should be free from any pesticide or chemical residues.
v Hygienic means to be followed for every operation.

Advantages of Early Weaning
v Dams of early weaned calves are in better condition at calving and that carries over to breeding season.
v Calves can be fed to grow to their genetic potential when forage conditions are not optimal for the dam.
v It may be the key to more efficient feed use during times of drought or other periods of feed shortage.
v Early weaned calves are very efficient of converting feed to gain.
v A high percentage of early weaned calves fed a growing ration for a short period of time then stepped-up on a high concentrate diet can achieve a USDA Quality Grade of average choice or better.
v Early weaning permits more cows to be carried on a limited forage supply.
v Calves weaned before or very early in the breeding season, pregnancy rates will be greater for thin cows.

Step E: Auditing by certification agency:
Every year of auditing and check analysis, residue control in inputs and out put products.

Step F: Phased certification of system.
Out Come:
A. 1. Conventional field (4.5ha) converted to certified organic field by 30 months of initiation of project following NPOP standards.
2. Organic fodder production system developed. Certified organic fodder and grain produced from the system to produce organic milk. GFY increased up to 15-30% under different organic production process.
3. Soil quality interms of available Organic C& NPK increased (2-3%) in 6 years of organic fertilization.
4. Soil health in terms of nematode, bacteria and soil nutrients was better under organic system.
B. 1. Cetrtified organic milk produced from the 4th yr of project. Certification done by SGS India Ltd, Gurgaon, affiliated afterwards by APEDA.
2. Fatty acid in milk was palmitic (25.2-26.62%), Oleic (18.11-20.98) and Myristic acid(10.05-11.00). Linoleic i.e Omega 6 and Linolenic i.e Omega 3 was more in organic milk.
3. Tharparkar cows produced more Omega 6&3 fatty acid than Sahiwal and Gir.
C. Disease incidence in animal was negligible except more external injuries under organic system. Routine vaccination and deworming followed as per recommendation.
Reproductive performance, in terms of calving interval, dry period, AFC was better under organic feeding system.

Silage Making

Silage Making Process Guide:
Silage Making Process.
Introduction of Silage:-
Silage is a preserved pasture/fodder or high moisture content fodder made from green crops. Making silage is very important for farmers as silage can be fed to animals (dairy, sheep, goat other livestock) during times when pasture isn’t good or natural fodder is not available. Some farmers exclusively make silage in commercial way to make money by growing green crops like maze/corn or any millet crops. Anyone who wants to go for dairy, sheep or goat farming should learn the silage making process. Silage very useful in stall fed farming and saving cost of fodder in any livestock farming essential for high returns.

Uses of Silage:-
Following are some of the uses and benefits of silage.
• Silage is good source of nutritious food.
• Silage makes animals gain weight in short period, especially in sheep
• Dairy cows produce more milk with silage feeding.
• Silage is very useful in summer when there is no scope for natural gazing.
• Silage is used as animal fodder such as in goat, sheep and dairy cows.
In this article, let us discuss about “pit silage making” process.

In India, making silage from corn or maize is popular and forage can be cut at the baby corn stage (This stage,it will have highest nutrition values) and can produce corn silage.
Maize or Corn for Silage
Silage Making Process – Step 1:-
First and Foremost, decide the type of crop to be grown for forage or silage. Choose hybrid and perennial varieties of crops which can be grown in short duration and produced multiple times.

Silage Making Process – Step 2:-
Choose a dry place to dig a pit on slightly sloping ground and the depth of the pit should decrease from the higher side of the sloping ground to the lower side by giving wedge like shape. Usually, size and dimension of the pit size depends on the amount of the forage to be stored. For example, to make 20 bags of forage, one should dog the pit size of 2 cubic meters and needs 10 m of polythene and 30 liters of molasses.

Silage Making Process – Step 3:-
Using chaff cutter, cut the forage to be preserved into 1 inch pieces.

Silage Making Process – Step 4:-
To prevent the forage contact with soil, place the polythene sheet by covering the bottom of the pit and all sides of the pit.

Silage Making Process – Step 5:-
Chopped forage should be placed into the pit and spread it into a thin layer and repeat this process until one third of pit is covered.
Silage Making Process – Step 6:-
One liter of molasses should be diluted with three liters of water and sprinkle evenly on the forage to be preserved.

Silage Making Process – Step 7:-
To prevent the forage from rotting, use garden sprayer to evenly distribute the solution (from step 6) throughout silage pit and this will also help in feeding micro-organisms to make the silage ferment quickly and saving the silage from rotting.

Silage Making Process – Step 8:-
The forage should be pressed with feet to make the air out and protect from fungal attack. This should be done with caution as little air even cause the fungus and damage the forage.

Silage Making Process (Pit)

Silage Making Process – Step 9:-
Add more bags of chopped forage after making the room (after pressing) with diluted molasses ( as said in step 6). Repeat the process of adding forage with diluted molasses and pressing until the pit is filled in a doom shape.

Silage Making Process – Step 10:-
Pit should be covered after final processing with polythene sheet on top to prevent from any water contact and dig a small trench around the sides of the pit.

Silage Making Process – Step 11:-
Now the pit should be covered with soil to make the sir out and prevent the polythene damage from rain, birds or any other animals.

Silage Making Process – Step 12:-
The conservation through fermentation may take weeks. Leave the pit until there is a shortage of fodder. The silage can last up to 2 years if it is prepared with well sheeting and good soil cover.

Silage Making Process – Step 13:-
To use the silage, open the pit from the lower side of the slope, take the enough silage fodder for one day and close the pit again.

Bottom Line of Silage Making:-
There is a good scope for commercial production of silage in India. It is easy and needs less investment. Basically you need a fertile soil for forage crops and feed cutting machine (costs about 20,000 to 100,000 Rs, depending on the capacity and output). In open market, good silage costs about 25 to 30 rupees per kg. Farmers should consider making their own silage rather buying from out side.

If you are planning to make corn silage or maize silage, you should know cultivation of corn crop. For more details on how to cultivate maize

Introduction to “How To Make Silage for Dairy Cattles”
The following information is about “How To Make Silage For Dairy Cattles”.

The product obtained by fermenting any green plant material in the absence of air is called as Silage. The process of Silage does two things: first it ferments the sugars to form acids and then breaks down the forage proteins into simpler compounds. The entire process of making the Silage is called ensiling and takes almost 2 or 3 months for the fermentation to occur. The container where the Silage is stored is called silo. Conserving the green fodder through the process of Silage is proved to be an economical way of dairy farming. Silage once prepared can be stored for almost 2 years and it should be noted that good quality Silage doesn’t contain butyric acid. When Silage is not produced under hygienic conditions, then the Silage obtained after the process is expected to contain butyric acid content.
Crops that are considered for Silage making are maize, sorghum, oats, pearl millet, hybrid Napier etc. The quality of Silage obtained from these crops can be improved by adding molasses, urea, formic acid etc.

Advantages of Silage
Some advantages of Silage making are:
• Crops can be ensiled into hay or dry fodder when the weather doesn’t support curing.
• When there is availability of Silage, large unit of cattle can be raised on the farm land.
• Some varieties of weed crops are used to produce Silage. This process can kill many weed seeds.
• Silage from the green plants contains 230 kgs of dry matter/m³ when compared to hay that contains 66 kgs/m³ of dry matter.
• Forage crops that are stem like in nature when converted into Silage get better utilized by the stock.
• Unwanted things present in the fresh crops get eliminated after ensiling.
• It can be stored in pits for many months.
• The ensiling process is a fermentation process that makes the Silage taste better than green grass and hence is suitable for cattle.

Characteristics of Silage
The ensiling process defines the quality of the Silage produced, its nutrient loss and relative palatability.
• The colour of good Silage should be yellowish green in colour. Excessive heating may cause dark brown or charred black colour material in the Silage. Too much moisture in the Silage appears to be deep green to black in colour.
• The odour of good Silage should not be very strong and objectionable. If the Silage smells musty or has strong butyric acid ammonia odour then it indicates that the Silage has lost its feed value.
• High moisture content, i.e. more than 75% indicates that the Silage has less feed value per kilogram. This low content of feed value is due to seepage.
• The chemical composition of the Silage is estimated on the type of crop, ensiling process and compaction. The pH of the Silage determines its quality and should be always less than 4.2. The general recommended values of butyric acid and ammonical nitrogen should be less that 0.2% and 11% respectively.
• Proper management and care can help produce good quality Silage. The Silage is generally classified into 3 categories: grade 1 (crude protein >15%, prepared from young grass and legumes), grade II (crude protein content in between 10 to 12%, prepared from cereal and legume grasses at emerging stage) and grade III (crude protein content <10%, prepared from grasses of maize and sorghum at seeding stage).

Prerequisites for making the Silage
• Harvesting the crop should never be done during the rainy season in Silage making.
• Before preparing the Silage, the unit size of the farm should be properly assessed and the pits for silos should be created accordingly to store the feed during the lean months.
• The silo in which the Silage is prepared or stored should have walls that prevent the entrance of air and doors that fit snugly. Flow of air into the Silage will spoil the Silage.
• The crop that is being used for making Silage should neither be too dry nor too wet. The stem of the crop should be solid with minimum air in the mass. Hollow stems should be crushed before use.
• The grass is pre wilted for a few hours before ensiling. The moisture content should be less than 70-75%. This helps in the butyric acid type of fermentation.
• The crop that is being used for preparing the Silage should be chopped into smaller pieces if needed. The shorter length of the material facilitates immediate bacterial fermentation and produces acid very rapidly. The minimum size of the chopped pieces should be 4 to 5 cm in length.
• Decide on the proper ratio of ingredients to make the Silage.
• Add some extra things like salt, molasses, etc. to improve the quality of the mixture.
• The silo should be filled properly with the required material and distributed uniformly throughout the silo.
• The silo should be covered with materials like straw, saw dust etc.
• Intermediate checks should be done to check the seal of the silo flatten the material and seal any cracks if any.
• The type and material of the silo container also have great importance because it determines the quality of the final product.

Pit preparation and materials for making Silage
Silage is also known as the pickle of green fodder and is considered to be easily digestible. The best quality Silage is prepared from cereal fodder crops like maize, sorghum, pearl millet, Oats and barley, etc. because they are rich in carbohydrate or sugar content. The green grass should be harvested at milking to dough formation stage, especially when the moisture is around 65 to 70%. The fodder is chaffed to the size of 1 to 2 inches and then filled into the pit.

A Silage pit has to be created with the required dimensions. The recommended dimensions of a pit are 1 x 1 x 1 m so as to store 500 kgs of Silage. The Silage has to be located in an area where there is no water logging problem. The pit has to be surrounded by thick plastic on all sides or it can be constructed with bricks and cement.

The fermentation mixture estimate for 1 ton of Silage needs the following materials:
• 1 kg jaggery or molasses
• 1 kg of salt
• 1 kg of mineral mixture
• 1 kg of di calcium phosphate
• Lactic acid bacteria
• 1 kg of urea

Silage making procedure
Mix all the above mentioned ingredients in a drum and add water to it. Small pieces of fodder (chaffed) are also added to the fermentation mixture in small quantities and pressed hard to remove the air from the mixture. Removing the air is very important. Pressing is done manually in small silos, but for large silos pressing is done by tractors. The pit is sealed and wrapped with a plastic sheet compactly and 5 inches thick, moist soil should also be used to cover the pit. Heavy stones are placed on the top of the pit so that air comes out of the pit. The pit should be covered properly such that water doesn’t enter the pit.
The pit can be re-opened after 15 days or when needed. The Silage is ready to be fed to the cattle after 45 days. The colour of Silage should be golden yellow. All the fungus formation on the top of the Silage is removed from the top layer before usage. During the initial stages, feeding Silage should be restricted to a minimum of 5 to 10 kg per animal each day so that the animals adjust to the feed slowly.

Types of silo and other containers
The silo has to be located very near to the crop that is being used for ensiling. The different types of silos are:
• Stacks
• Clamp silo
• Pit silo
• Trench silo
• Tower silo
• Temporary and portable silo

Problems of Silage making in India
The silage making process is not very common practice in the tropical regions because of the following reasons:
• The low density of the Silage; hence needs the process of excluding air from the ensiling process.
• Stable Silage is produced without additives.
• The largest amount of molasses is required for improving the quality of the Silage.
• Growth of mould on pre -wilting grass is a common problem in tropical regions.
• The grass in the tropical region has low feeding value and ensiling can reduce the value further.
• The Silage made from the tropical grass has no improvement on the weight of the cattle during the winter or dry season. Therefore, tropical grass Silage has to be fed along with another concentrate feeds for obtaining good milk production.

Compiled  & Shared by- This paper is a compilation of groupwork provided by the

Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)

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 Reference-On Request.

ORGANIC MILK PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PROTOCOLS:A CASE REVIEW