TRAINING OF DRUG SNIFFING DOGS:USING NOSES TO KNOW DRUGS

TRAINING OF DRUG SNIFFING DOGS:USING NOSES TO KNOW DRUGS

HOW DO THEY TRAIN DRUG SNIFFING DOGS?

A dog’s nose is reputed to be at the very least 10,000 times more sensitive to smells than human nose.
The sense of smell is the dominant of a dog’s senses followed by hearing and sight.Though dogs have been used around the world for security with references dating back to the Roman army of being used as attack and sentry dogs, it is only in the last century that they have been adopted as an indispensable asset of police and military operations worldwide.Notwithstanding the use of dogs for tracking, the recognition and utilisation of the canine sense of smell for a wide range of disciplines is relatively new and demand for detection dogs of recognised breeds outstrips supply.

People often wonder if dogs sniff out hidden drugs because they want to eat them. In fact, the dogs have absolutely no interest in drugs. What they’re actually looking for is their favourite toy. Their training has led them to associate that toy with the smell of drugs.The toy used most often is a white towel. Police dogs love to play a vigorous game of tug-of-war with their favourite towel.

To begin the training, the handler simply plays with the dog and the towel, which has been carefully washed so that it has no scent of its own. Later, a bag of marijuana is rolled up inside the towel. After playing for a while, the dog starts to recognise the smell of marijuana as the smell of his favourite toy.
The handler then hides the towel, with the drugs, in various places. Whenever the dog sniffs out the drugs, he digs and scratches, trying to get at his toy. He soon comes to learn that if he sniffs out the smell of drugs, as soon as he finds them he’ll be rewarded with a game of tug-of-war.

As training progresses, different drugs are placed in the towel, until the dog is able to sniff out a host of illegal substances. The same method is used for bomb-detection dogs, except various chemicals used to manufacture explosives are placed in the towel instead of drugs.

HOW DO YOU TRAIN DRUG SNIFFING DOGS?

First, you play a game with the dog’s favorite toy. In most cases, the toy is a white towel with no scent. The dog becomes accustomed to playing with the toy and constantly seeks it out. Eventually, you roll up drugs inside the toy. The dog learns to associate the smell of drugs with the toy.Then, you will hide the toy in various places. The dog uses its keen sense of smell – which is up to 100,000 times greater than that of a human – to locate the hidden toy. Once the dog finds the toy, you will reward it with play or a treat. You gradually increase the difficulty by hiding in harder-to-find places. Drug detecting dogs learn to find the toy even in challenging situations. For example, you might bury the toy, hide it in a container, or leave it slightly out-of-reach.This training method helps build a positive feedback loop with the dog and its toy. The dog seeks the illegal substance in hopes of getting a reward.

THE SHAPE SIGNAL METHOD

The shape signal method is another popular way to train drug dogs.

First, the dog learns a simple command, like “sit” or “bow.” Teach them using a hand signal or clicker.

Then, use your hand signal and expose the dog to a sample scent. Reward the pup when they perform the wanted action after smelling the scent. You can start with something like vanilla or cheese before moving to a drug scent.

Repeat this enough, and the dog will learn to associate the action with the scent and reward. You should eventually remove the hand signal, but keep the clicker and reward. This way, the dog can identify the smell automatically.

Then, you’ll hide the scent and have the dog find it. After they’ve mastered that step, remove the clicker but keep the reward. Just make sure to avoid rewards if the dog locates the wrong scent.

The final step is to hide the scent in a hard-to-reach spot. You could put the smell in containers or find other ways to obfuscate it. This will challenge your dog to maximize its seeking abilities.

WHAT CAN DRUG SNIFFING DOGS FIND?

Repeating these processes allows drug sniffing dogs to learn multiple scents. Our dogs can recognize 13 substances, including cocaine, bath salts, meth, and opioids. Some drug detecting dogs also seek out legal substances in specific cases. Police dogs are only trained for illegal substances because they don’t want them to bother people with legal medicine like Xanax. However, our 3DK9 sniffer dogs can find legal substances for specific clients.

Additionally, detection dogs can also sniff out explosives. These kinds of dogs are common at airports, concerts, and other large gatherings. These dogs can work in nearly any environment and locate bombs hidden in packages, buildings, and vehicles.

HOW TO ENSURE QUALITY TRAINING

If you want the training to stick, you must form a relationship with your dog. For example, police dogs live with the officers who train them, ensuring they’re always close together. You don’t need to be around your pup 24/7, but building a strong relationship is still essential. This helps ensure robust communication between you and your dog. The more the dog trusts you, the easier it will be to train. Be patient with the dog and work slowly. It might take many tries before the dog performs the expected behavior. Provide rewards when they succeed, but avoid punishments.It never hurts to test the dog on previously-learned techniques continually. Much like any other skill, practice makes perfect. It’s also essential to train your dogs in a variety of environments. Houses, offices, stores, and apartments are all places your dog will likely visit on the job. Prepare them for any situation they may face for maximum effect.

Training security dogs

Training a security dog starts with their handler, who must undertake rigorous studies and practical testing to hold appropriate registrations and accreditations.

Usually, a canine security team will consist of the same handler/dog combination, who are experienced in working together and communicating with each other.

There are multiple stages to training security dogs, including:

• Obedience training, so that the dog can respond immediately to any number of commands including which direction to turn, sitting, staying, leaving and recall.
• Agility training – security dogs are agile and fast. Their training includes learning how to navigate serious obstacles such as solid walls, long jumps and high fencing.
• Protection training – security dogs are usually taught to bark when they sense an intruder. They are also trained in protecting the welfare of their handler, and how to apprehend intruders safely.

Sniffer dog training

One of the most popular reasons to consider using K9 security is in locations where there is potential for drug abuse.

Security dogs aren’t there to be petted. They are highly trained, efficient and focused. Drug detection dogs surpass the accuracy of any human interaction or manual screening.Professional dog handlers train these canines using toys and treats – so they find their work exciting, challenging, and fun.In essence, a drug detection dog is taught to associate the smell of the substance(s) they are screening for with a toy, or perhaps a preferred treat. This creates a tangible link between sourcing any drugs, and the smell of the dog’s favourite toy.

The benefits include:

• Having a flexible security approach, with dogs working either on or off the lead.
• Fast reactiveness when drugs are detected.
• A passive security presence to avoid the intrusion of manual screening.
• Reliability and accuracy of drug detection.
• Assistance and support for human security personnel.
• The ability to screen large areas or numbers of people simultaneously.

Locations where drug prevention is critical include:

• Open plan event spaces.
• Multi-occupancy premises.
• Public events.
• Educational establishments.
• Borders and boundaries.

Identifying drugs with canine patrols

Detection dogs are trained to let their handler know when drugs are present. This indication can be given in several ways, depending on the type of training.

• Passive indications occur when the dog is trained to sit or stand when they detect drugs.
• Aggressive indications include digging, pawing or barking at the location.

Similarly, security dogs work in a variety of ways, and the most appropriate solutions depend on their purpose and the site they are protecting.

Passive patrols use a dog on a lead that is under the control of their handler at all times. This type of patrol is unintrusive and helps security guards to identify potential issues or detect drugs, without any direct contact.

Proactive patrols usually have the canine off the lead, although they remain under firm control. This allows for more detailed searches and is ideal in busy areas or where large premises require searching.Dual-purpose patrols cover both types of security and can respond accordingly to situations or risks that arise.A drug sniffer dog or drug detection dog is a dog that is trained to and works at using its senses, mainly their sense of smell, to detect a variety of substances including drugs. Their sense of smell is two thousand times much stronger, and fifty times more sensitive than that of a human’s which is why a sniffer dog is used for a number of security operations.Sniffer dogs have totally no interest in the drugs themselves. What they’re actually searching for is their favourite toy. Their training programme has led them to associate that toy with the smell of drugs. The sniffer dogs’ strong desire to hunt drives them to seek out what they’ve been trained to find, so they do not falsely signal in order to get a reward, in their minds, finding traces of a drug is the reward.So they do not make a fuss, drug detection dogs are taught to learn two kinds of alerting: the passive and the aggressive. Drug dogs use an aggressive alert, where they dig and paw at the spot where they smell the drugs without causing damage to personal or business property. When they smell the drugs without causing damage to personal or business property. When sniffing for explosives they will use a passive approach as scratching the service could be dangerous.During the early stages of training the sniffer dog will receive a reward when it displays any form of recognition of the target scent. As the dog’s skills progress the reward will only be given when the dog responds with the correct reaction (e.g. sit, stand, stare, down, bark, etc…).

Canine Sniffer dogs and their handlers undergo extensive training for months in order to be certified and are successful because of their ability to work as a team. They will carry out testing and retraining throughout their entire careers to ensure their skills are reliable and up to standard. (Dogs typically stay assigned to the handler they were trained with and the team get re-tested together)

Types of Scent Detecting Dogs That Support the Police

The police use a dog’s nose to support them in various activities. The training for each discipline is rigorous and costly, sometimes taking as much as two to three years to complete. Most dogs specialize in one area of expertise, detecting specific odors. The training techniques are all similar—a dog learns to associate certain scents with a high-value reward, so they search for these scents over all others and indicate when they find them.

Narcotics and Bomb Detection Dogs

You’ll often see these dogs in airports, train stations, and at large-scale events. Narcotics dogs learn to identify the smells of drugs like marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and crystal meth.

After 9/11, bomb detection dogs were increasingly in demand. They identify the odors of certain common bomb-making chemicals.These dogs typically work off-leash in close contact with their handlers. It’s even possible for them to identify certain accelerants used in arson cases.

Search and Rescue and Mantrailing Dogs

Dogs learn to trail or air-scent the unique scent of a particular individual. They might look for a person who has gone missing under suspicious circumstances or someone who has gotten lost or caught up in a disaster of some sort. You’ll no doubt be familiar with the iconic images of Bloodhounds with their noses to the ground, held by a handler on a leash, mantrailing for criminals on the run.Search and rescue dogs working off air-scents cover large areas of ground methodically off-leash, often some distance away from their handlers.

PREFERRED SNIFFER DOG BREEDS

Dogs in demand for drug detection work include English Springer Spaniels, Labrador Retrievers, Golden retrievers, the Belgian Malinois, German Shepherd dogs and Border Collies.The U.S. imports between 80 and 90 percent of it’s working dogs from Europe, which has a rich heritage of dog trials and competitions for breeding and training dogs for police and military roles .Some dogs are geared to dual-purpose work i.e The Belgian Malinois and German Shepherd dogs ( also known as Alsatians ) are easily recognisable as deployed in patrol, protection and attack roles as well as in drug detection.Dogs such as the English springer spaniel, known as being ideal family pets are excellent drug detection dogs.In civilian environments, they are accepted positively and without the wariness or apprehension that may be associated with the “he looks fierce, does he bite ?” German Shepherd or guard dog stereotypes.

CLASS A AND CLASS B ILLEGAL DRUGS
Drugs commonly used for experimental, recreational and dependency purposes ( and their alias’s):

Amphetamine – also known as Amphetamine Sulphate, Base, Billy, Paste, Sulph, Whizz
Cannabis Resin – also known as Boom, Gangster, Hash, Hashish, Hemp
Cocaine – also known as Blow, Bump, C, Candy, Charlie, Coke, Crack, Flake, Rock, Snow, Toot
Heroin – also known as Brown Sugar, China White, Dope, H, Horse, Junk, Skag, Skunk, Smack, White Horse.
Ketamine – also known as Cat, Valium, K, Special K, Vitamin K
Marijuana – also known as Blunt, Bud, Dope, Ganja, Grass, Green, Herb, Joint, Mary Jane, Pot, Reefer, Sinsemilla, Skunk, Smoke, Trees, Weed
MDMA (Ecstasy) – also known as Adam, Clarity, Eve, Lover’s Speed, Peace, Uppers
Methamphetamine – also known as Crank, Chalk, Crystal, Fire, Glass, Go Fast, Ice, Meth, Speed

WHY ARE DOGS SO IDEAL FOR DRUG DETECTION?
Dogs have an amazing set of attributes, they have a great sense of smell and, some breeds more than others, a strong desire to hunt.If well managed they are intensely loyal, creating strong bonds with their handlers, are obedient, responding well to training and can work in intensely stressful environments.While a sniffer dog is on a drug search, he can cover a lot of area very quickly. It would take human officers 10 times as long to search the same area, and they’d still never find everything a dog can sniff out.In 2002, a drug detection dog foiled a woman’s attempt to smuggle marijuana into a prison in Brisbane, Australia. The marijuana had been inserted into a balloon, which was smeared with coffee, pepper, and petroleum jelly and then placed in her bra.

 

THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM

The olfactory epithelium is a specialised tissue inside the nasal cavity, containing olfactory receptor cells, which have cilia extensions. The cilia trap odour molecules as they pass across the epithelial surface.In humans, this tissue measures around 10 cm2 and lies on the roof of the nasal cavity about 7 cm above and behind the nostrils and is the part of the olfactory system directly responsible for detecting odours.In dogs, by comparison, it measures 170 square centimetres of tissue. The processing of all the scent related information is done by the olfactory lobe in the brain, but the dog’s lobe is around 40 times larger than that of humans.The size and complexity of this structure in the brain is one reason that dogs have a natural aptitude to detect drugs, bombs, banknotes, bed bugs, cancer, and track missing people by their individual scent, but more-so to negate other intrusive odours occurring naturally or placed by intent that are significantly stronger.

DOGS BREATHE A LITTLE DIFFERENTLY TO HUMANS
When a dog breathes in, the air separates into distinct paths, one flowing into the olfactory area and the other passing through to the respiratory system the lungs.When we breathe, we use the same route within our nose for inhalation and exhalation. In doing so we stop smelling during exhalation and recommence on inhalation.Dogs also have the ability to detect different smells from each nostril, it’s as if the dog’s nose was in stereo.When a dog exhales, the air exits through slits in its nose whilst air is still incoming through it’s nostrils. As a result, the uninterrupted flow of incoming air through the dog’s nose provides continuity of odours aiding it’s perception of odours and maintaining traction of a pinpointed scent.In a study conducted at the University of Oslo in Norway, a hunting dog holding its head high into the wind while in search of game sniffed in a continuous stream of air for up to 40 seconds, spanning at least 30 respiratory cycles.Depending on the level of activity and exertion and if operating under stress the breathing pattern of dogs changes.When we go for a run it is a short interval between only breathing through our nose and progressing to inhaling hard through our mouths as well.

On an increasing scale of activity, the dog will breathe in the following sequence.

• Inhalation and exhalation through the nose.
• Inhalation through the nose exhalation through the nose and the mouth.
• Inhalation through the nose and the mouth and exhalation through the nose and the mouth.

A dog’s main method of cooling its body is panting as they do not possess sweat glands.Dogs can either pant or sniff, but they cannot do both at the same time so sniffer dogs have a reduced olfactory efficiency if they overheat as they focus less on sniffing as they attempt to cool themselves down.

PREFERRED SEX OF DETECTION DOGS
It is a well-established fact that female dogs have a better sense of smell than males, which demonstrates a contradiction when the majority of police dogs are males.

The reason for this is two-fold:

1. A female’s sense of smell is adversely affected when she is in heat and thus every six months for a period of 16 to 24 days and possibly some weeks before and after she is, by comparison with a male dog, unreliable.
2. A female dog in heat provides a real distraction to male dogs.

Both of these factors can and are overcome by neutering the females, who subsequently provide no distraction to male dogs, nor inconsistencies in their sense of smell.

SNIFFER DOGS TRAINING
The initial training of drug detection dogs and related training can be very expensive. Many hours of hard work go into training and preparing the K9’s for the many different scenarios they will encounter in “active” duty.

• There are established breeding and training kennels that train detection dogs.
• The breeding school will breed and train the dogs in the various disciplines.
• Detection dogs as a general rule either detect explosives or narcotics, but not both.
• When the detection dog is first united with it’s handler, the real work begins to become an effective team.

As a sniffer dog is trained on a daily basis the level of difficulty is increased in line with its achievements and benchmarked progress, to finely hone its skills in detecting and identifying odours.
The aim of training a dog to identify odours is to teach him to make optimum use of his innate talents and hunting traits in order to meet the human needs and objectives.

Depending on the discipline the dog is involved in: guarding, patrolling, tracking or search, it is trained accordingly and in line with the working environment.Studies have shown that detection dogs working in hazardous high-intensity environments do adapt and focus on their objectives.Dogs trained in drug detection have no interest in the actual drugs themselves, and it would be hard to imagine a dog that liked explosives or finding corpses in earthquake situations.They are actually looking for their “reward” in achieving the task given by their handlers.

 

PASSIVE AND PRO-ACTIVE
The drug detection dog discipline is split into two main fields, Passive and Pro-active.

Pro-Active
The pro-active dog does not merge with the public and is therefore permitted a natural indication of a successful find.Their responses can be very vocal with barking and overtly demonstrative behaviour, pawing the ground or straining on the leash.

Passive
If you take the case of dogs trained to detect explosives, then the focus is aimed at detection and alerting the handler with no attempts to dig out the “prize” and claim the reward.Similarly with dogs that work in drug detection especially in public environments such as airports, schools, college and university campus’s, events held at racecourses and festival venues and licensed premises, the “alert” signals to the handler are passive and in the instance where drugs are detected the signal might be for the dog to simply sit down quietly next to the person of interest.Having an English Springer Spaniel or even a taller gun breed dog (used to detect drugs on the upper body) that has detected traces of narcotics simply sit down quietly next to a suitcase or a person is regarded as working in passive mode.Sniffer Dog training is not just about obedience and drug or explosive detection, but also about improving and maintaining health, stamina and physiological conditioning and a good regime and diet impacts on the olfactory performance.

Sniffer dog detection rates are impacted by periods of challenging exercise.Well trained sniffer dogs with improved cardiovascular conditioning demonstrate a lower exercising heart rate.
This is turn elevates thermoregulatory performance and reduces the need for panting.Studies conducted between well-conditioned and non-conditioned detection dogs showed a 63.6% decrease in olfactory sensitivity in the latter.
Even dogs with a natural propensity for sniffing things out need training and regular refresher courses regardless of whether they are working in the field or not.

DETECTION DOG AND HANDLER RELATIONSHIP
Dog handlers identify with and interpret the behaviour of their dog.There is as much focus on training the dog and handler to work together as there is in training the dog in detection and response.The dog is alert to and cognizant of the handlers body stance, commands and cues.Similarly the dog handler reads the behaviour of the dog which in many instances has proven to have prevented the handler from coming to harm through the sensitivity of the dog to danger in it’s surroundings.

The behaviour of dogs before during and after earthquakes is well documented throughout the ages where they would become agitated and evacuate buildings prior to earthquakes.Geologists at the University of California measuring earth tremors that could only be detected by their equipment but not felt by themselves found that every incidence of a tremor was preceded each time by the continuous barking of dogs.

CANINE SENSE OF HEARING
The hearing ability of dogs is far superior to that of humans.The apparently silent whistles used in whodunnit murder mysteries and demonstrated at sheepdog trials are to dogs a siren.The audible range for humans is 20Hz to 20,000 kHz but dogs, dependent on age and breed is usually in the 67Hz to 45 kHz frequency range.The consequences are that a dog can hear and identify the unique walking gait of his owner and even the specific engine murmur of his car, readily distinguishing between, and alert to, the approach of the postman or neighbourhood burglar.

CANINE SENSE OF SIGHT
Dogs have superior night vision to humans and are very sensitive to motion, moreso than static objects, making them good as night-time watchdogs. Predator species like dogs (and humans) have eyes set close together.

Dogs, depending on the breed are usually set at a 20 degree angle increasing the field of view and the peripheral vision.Humans with 20/20 vision are said to have perfect eyesight which means that we can distinguish letters or objects at a distance of 20 feet.Dogs typically have 20/75 vision which translates to a dog standing 20 feet away from an object being able to see what a human being can see standing 75 feet away from it.
Labradors who are identified as good drug detection dogs are also a breed that tends to be an exception and are bred as they have much better eyesight and may have vision that is closer to 20/20.

FAQ ON SNIFFER DOG

How long does it take to train a drug detection dog? –

Anywhere from 2-3 months, depending on the dog.

How long does it take to train police dogs?

How long does it take to train a police dog?

Most police dogs will take on average 4 to 6 months to complete their basic training and ready to start active service with their police handler. However, some K9 and German Shepherd police dogs will take longer to train dependent on personality and character.

How do you train a dog to detect drugs?

Either cover the toy in the scent, wrap the toy in the substance, or hide the drug scent with the toy. Command your dog to ‘find it’. Your dog will learn to associate the smell of the drug with the toy. When your dog finds the toy with the drug scent, play with your dog with the toy as a reward.

How accurate are drug sniffing dogs?

Altogether 1219 experimental searching tests were conducted. On average, hidden drug samples were indicated by dogs after 64s searching time, with 87.7% indications being correct and 5.3% being false. In 7.0% of trials dogs failed to find the drug sample within 10min.

What drugs are drug dogs trained to smell?

Narcotics Detection Dogs (NDDs)

They are trained to identify illegal odours including: cocaine HCL, crack cocaine, heroin, cannabis/marijuana, Ecstasy, methamphetamines, amphetamines, ketamine, MDMA and other commonly abused drugs.

Are police dogs trained with shock collars?

E-collars are the wireless modern way to train police K-9s. Consisting of a special collar equipped with batteries, electric contact points and a radio receiver tuned to the handler’s handheld transmitter, e-collars allow police K-9s to be trained off-leash and at a distance.

Can dogs smell drugs inside your body?

While dogs can smell drugs, they cannot detect the quantity of drugs they can smell. All the dog knows that there is a scent of drugs on a certain person. This is not to say that NSW police sniffer dogs are useless.

How does a drug dog alert?

Dogs alert to odor and direct the handler to the source of the odor, and then the officer searches for drugs in the area where source odor was indicated. Every handler has had the experience of his dog alerting to a vehicle in which odor was present but no drugs were found.

Do drug dogs smell nicotine?

Your pup’s sense of smell can be 1,000 times more powerful than a human’s. While dogs certainly can pick up on the scent of nicotine, most drug-detection dogs are not trained to detect non-illicit drugs like nicotine or tobacco.

What Breeds Make the Best Drug Dogs

Border Collie. This smaller breed was developed in England’s Scottish-bordering county of Northumberland for herding livestock, especially sheep. …

German Shepherd Dog. …

Czech Shepherds. …

Belgian Malinois. …

German Shorthair Pointer. …

The Labrador Retriever.

What drugs do Airport dogs smell?

It not surprising that detection dogs are used at airports due to their ability to detect the following substances within luggage and on the person: Drugs – including weed, cocaine,opium and heroin. Explosives/Bombs.

Are drug dogs trained to smell multiple drugs?

Most dogs are trained to hit on more than one drug — including heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine. But they react the same way no matter which drug they smell, Cvetan said.

Can drug dogs smell ibuprofen?

Dogs are very intelligent and highly trainable animals. With special training, dogs can detect pain pills, or opioids, with ease to help stop drug trafficking, catch criminals, and save countless lives!

 

SNIFFING THE “ADMISSIBILITY” OF SNIFFER DOGS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

(This article has been authored by Digvijay Sahni, a third-year student at Maharashtra National Law University, Mumbai. )

A common procedure and technique which is often resorted to by the investigation authorities are to deploy sniffer dogs/ tracker dogs. These canines are well-trained and better equipped to track the accused and bring him to justice through their faculties and sensory powers. However, there has been always a reluctance and a sense of apprehension on the part of the judiciary to treat such evidence as admissible in law. Prima facie, the judiciary, and legislature are of the view that the guilt of the accused shouldn’t be determined through these canines’ inferences. On the other side, the courts abroad have adopted a more holistic and pragmatic approach where they treat such evidence as good and admissible in law and it is a general and common practice of theirs to convict a person based on such evidence. This article makes a case here that the courts must frame appropriate guidelines to acknowledge the faculties of these well-trained canines as evidence. Necessity for carving out a provision in the Indian Evidence Act 1872 It is often seen that the courts perceive investigation carried out by authorities through contemporary mechanisms (involving scientific methods) in tune with the well-accepted principles and norms. The scientific methods such as lie-detection, narco-analysis, polygraph tests, etc. often retorted to by the agencies involve the collection and analysis of the reactions and responses of the accused which are then adduced and produced as evidence before the court. Though these tests have been held to be constitutionally valid by the apex court, there is a failure to recognize the inherent frailties, these tests might pose and cause a hindrance in the efficient and effective working of the criminal justice system. The Gujarat High Court mentioned that it is often perceived that when a person speaks the truth, the test reports it as a false response (false positive) and when a person lies, the machine reports that the person has spoken the truth (false negative). This happens as a person under examination can control his anxiety and emotions, hence, deceiving the examiner. Furthermore, such tests are subject to the consent of the accused and if conducted without obtaining his prior consent, then it would cast doubt on the prosecution case. It is at this juncture that the evidence of a sniffer dog could come as an aid as such dogs are carefully chosen based on pedigree and given special training, which should act as a reasonable ground in setting and endorsing a particular standard for accommodating such evidence.[i] With the rampant use of canines, it becomes necessary to ponder upon whether the interpretation of a dog’s behaviour could qualify as an expert opinion u/s 45 of the Act. Though there is no specific provision that gives admissibility to evidence given by sniffer dogs and considers it hearsay, the judiciary must step in and recognize such evidence carrying some probative value in the eyes of law. Moreover, in one of the cases, there was an attempt by the Bombay High Court to recognize and give credibility to such evidence, where it was appealed that the judiciary must take cognizance of the evolving modern mechanisms and appreciate such evidence. This approach is considered to be one tending in favour of evidence collected through the aid of sniffer dogs, as there is not an ounce of doubt where these dogs can be misled or deluded in contradistinction to other forms of evidence collected through modern gadgets, which can be easily manipulated, and tampered with. Additionally, such evidence can come as an aid to lend corroboration to other pieces of evidence produced on record, as these dogs undergo rigorous training and exercises over a period of time, which make them proficient in detection. The Kerala High Court[ii], again by mentioning the special capabilities of the tracker dog, and its prominent use in crime detection and investigations, held that the orthodox view regarding the inadmissibility of such evidence, should not be followed and the courts in appropriate circumstances should consider it. However, the probative value of such evidence would depend on the testimony of the handler and persons who witnessed its movements. There are several instances showcasing sniffers’ capability to hunt down criminals through scents, in turn proving their potential and calibre without any margin of error. The services of these canines also came as an aid in detecting drugs & psychotropic substances, and explosives which became the sole reason for their deployment by the USA and Afghan armed forces to carry out raids and patrols as it led to a surge in their discovery. The orthodox view which tends to quiz the reliability and admissibility of such evidence was followed by the apex court in the mid-1969, where it highlighted three major problems; firstly, a dog himself can’t go into the witness box and give his statement on oath and hence, subject himself to cross-examination, secondly, life and liberty which form the core of Constitution shouldn’t merely depend upon the faculties of a canine, and thirdly, accepting such evidence as admissible as per the rules of evidence will inevitably obsess the jury to rely on such evidence in every case. In another such case, the Supreme Court expressed its reluctance to rely on the evidence of a tracker dog due to the error in misjudging smells, mistaken tracking, wring interpretation of the dog’s behaviour by its master, and little knowledge about the faculties of such dogs with which they track and hunt down criminals. The unavailability of proper scientific research on the accuracy of their capabilities also worries the courts to deploy the services of these canines, as the judicial framework in the nation isn’t well-equipped to accept such evidence. The investigating agencies at best can rely on the services of these canines for the purposes of search & seizure and other similar purposes; an approach which has till date clouded the judiciary and prevented it from opting for a pragmatic view of collecting evidence, especially in a society that has seen rapid technological advancements. Position in other jurisdictions The second review of the New Zealand Evidence Act 2006 makes a provision, u/s 25, for the admissibility of an opinion given by an expert person. Expert evidence, as defined u/s 4(1), is evidence given in the form of an opinion by a person who possesses specialised knowledge or skill in respect of a particular subject matter. By placing reliance on the opinion of the experts, where the conviction was based on the evidence collected by deploying the faculties of canines, the court of appeal in R vs Lindsay[iii], found it to be satisfactory as the handler was fully aware of what his dog was thinking at the relevant time. The court also opined that there are certain safeguards in place and it is only when the dog and its handler (giving evidence on his behalf) are fully qualified and trained, such evidence would be acceptable. It is interesting to note here that despite admitting such evidence as good in law, it lays an onus on the trial courts to frame suitable safeguards and guidelines which will differ from a case-to-case basis. In the United States, Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence, provides for statutory recognition to an opinion/ testimony given by a person who is an expert in the relevant fields which will inevitably help the judge to understand the evidence and determine a fact in issue. However, the pertinent question of whether such testimony is admissible or not came up before the court in Daubert vs Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.[iv], where the court devised certain guidelines and ruled that a testimony that enables the judge to understand the fact in issue and which furthers the scientific knowledge, will be admissible. The testimony given by a handler of the sniffer dog is based on its behaviour, which enables a judge to understand the issue and connect a various chain of events. Further, the reliability of dogs[v] can be demonstrated through the training and certifications it has received, their previous success rate in tracking down scents, their ability to discriminate between similar smells, etc. All these factors will play a great role in adducing the sniffer dogs’ evidence as competent, admissible, and relevant in law. Concluding Remarks A critical appraisal of the position in India highlights that neither the legislature nor the judiciary has taken appropriate measures to frame suitable guidelines to attach admissibility to the evidence of a sniffer dog. While the developed jurisdictions across the globe have taken steps to admit such evidence and framed suitable guidelines, the Indian courts must also materialise such an approach, and not exclude it by terming it as hearsay. The uniform approach adopted by the courts internationally can come as an aid in framing appropriate guidelines and devising circumstances where such evidence could be recognised and admitted. The courts can take cognizance of how the tracking was done, the history and the success rate of the dog, lack of discrepancy in the statements of the handler when subjected to cross-examination, & what is deposed by him panchnama, etc. Not to mention that the courts should be cautious, however, with the lacunas in the scientific methods of collecting evidence which often quizzes their admissibility, and their probable misuse, the faculties of canines should be put to use.

REFERENCE-R vs Kang Brown, [2008] 1 SCR 456. [ii] Bhadran vs State of Kerala, 1995 CriLJ 676. [iii] [1970] NZLR 1002. [iv] 509 U.S.579, 113 S.Ct. 2786 (1993). [v] Terrell v State of Maryland 239 A 2d 128 (1968).