UNIQUE FEATURES OF GOAT MILK

UNIQUE FEATURES OF GOAT MILK

Aparna Hebbar H¹ and Siddalingswamy Hiremeth²

(¹Assistant Professor and Head (I/c), Dept of VPB, Veterinary College Athani, KVAFSU, Bidar, Karnataka ²Associate Professor and Head (I/c), Dept. LPM, Veterinary College Gadag, KVAFSU, Bidar, Karnataka) ¹appehebbar@gmail.com, ² sidduvet123@gmail.com

Goats are important milk producers in tropics and contribute significantly to human nutrition.  (Devendra, 1999). A goat is universally called as “Poor man’s cow” (Iqbal et al., 2008). Sixty-five per cent of the world goat population is maintained in the countries of Asia and 29 percent in Africa (Singh et al., 2006). Asia itself produces about 80 % goat milk (Iqbal et al., 2008).  In the past, goat milk has been consumed by people and was preferred over cow milk in most of Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean nations. However, due to mass production, which was simpler to gather and transport for industrial processing, bovine milk overtook this appeal in the 20th century. Ancient Egyptians revered goat milk and the cheese prepared from it, and some pharaohs are said to have buried these foods with other valuables in their graves (Smith, 2006). Additionally, goat milk was used in formulations to improve beauty and skin health, and the Egyptians were the first to do so in 1400 B.C. (Silva, 2005). In the areas considered to be the cradle of modern civilization, goat milk played a significant part in human nutrition (Hatziminaoglou and Boyazoglu, 2004).

Global goat populations have been recorded increasing trend since 1960s, primarily due to changing incomes and dietary preferences among human populations and a lack of space for rearing the huge dairy animals. The number of dairy goats worldwide has likewise been steadily rising, with notable increase from 1990s. Dairy goat products are consistently in demand in both established and emerging markets. In addition to their superior flavour, goat milk and milk products are preferred to cow milk due to their distinctive composition, which provides health and nutritional benefits such as improved digestion and lipid metabolism (Haenlein, 2004). In recent years, there has been an increased interest for goat milk production and conversion to value added products. There is increasing demand for healthy and organic and dairy food worldwide including India.

 General properties:

1. Specific gravity: 1.026-1.028
2. Freezing point is about (-) 0.580 °C lower than cow milk (-) 0.50 °C
3. Electric conductivity is 0.0112-to-0.0191-ohm ^-1 cm^-1
4. Viscosity at 27°C is 13.4 mp.
5. Titrable acidity 0.11 to 0.18 percent as lactic acid.
6. pH value ranges from 6.5 to 6.9.
7. The average value with pepsin-HCL test was 36.
8. Goat milk has 11 fatty acids in its butter fat ,19 amino acids in its protein, 6 vitamins, 25 minerals,8 enzymes, 1 sugar, 5 phosphorus compounds and 14 nitrogenous substances which are well dissolved in fluid milk.

Characteristics of Goat milk:

1. Goat milk is alkaline while cow milk is acidic.
2. Digestibility co-efficient of protein of goat milk is 85 %.
3. Zero gamma-globulin factor.
4. Biological value of goat milk protein is 8.5 per cent.
5. Fat globules are fine and small (size 2 microns) hence it is easily assimilated.
6. Goat milk is lower in cholesterol and higher in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins A and B.
7. Goats convert all β carotene in their food into vitamin A, so their milk has more vitamin A and is whiter than cow milk.
8. Goat milk has 9 minerals considered to higher than any other milk used for human consumption.
9. The 11 essential amino acids in goat milk protein are arginine, histidine, lysine, isoleucine, valine, tryptophan, phenyl alanine, methionine, threonine, leucine.
10. Goat milk contains more calcium, phosphorus and potassium than cow and human milk.
11. Density of goat milk is like that of cow milk, while it has higher viscosity, specific gravity, titratable acidity, but lower refractive index and freezing point than cow milk (Prakash and Jenness, 1968; Haenlein and Wendorff, 2006). Surface tension of goat milk is also within the range of cow milk (Ju`arez and Ramos, 1986).
12. The mean pH value ranges from 6.5 to 6.9. The curd tension of goat milk is much lower than that of cow milk. The freezing point of goat milk is about -0.580°C, viscosity 13.4 mP at 27°C, titrable acidity as lactic acid ranges from 0.11 to 0.18 per cent (Roy and Vadodaria, 2006).
13. Unlike cows and sheep, goats spend most of their time browsing rather than grazing on the grass to cover more ground on their way to a water source. Goat milk can have a substantial effect on human nutrition due to the presence or lack of specific proteins, vitamins, lipids, minerals, glycerol ethers, enzymes, fat globule size, orotic acid and casein polymorphisms. This is because goat milk has a distinct flavor compared to sheep and cow milk (Deepak et al. 2020; Chandran et al. 2021).

 Composition of goat milk

Compositions of goat milk vary with diet, breed, individuals, parity, season, feeding, management, environmental conditions, locality, stage of lactation, and health status of the udder (Park et al., 2007) which also affects taste of goat milk.

 Table 1: Composition of goat and sheep milk (%)

Ingredient	Goat	Sheep
Water	87	81
Fat	4.25	7.90
Protein	3.52	5.23
Sugar (Lactose)	4.27	4.81
Minerals (Ash)	0.86	0.90

 

Table 2: Milk composition of goat and cow

Composition (%)	Goat milk	Cow milk
Fat	3.8	3.6
Solid not fat	8.9	9.0
Lactose	4.1	4.7
Protein	3.4	3.2
Casein	2.4	2.6
Non protein nitrogen	0.8	0.2
Ash	0.8	0.7
Calories/100ml	70	69
Vitamin	Goat milk	Cow milk
Vitamin A (IU)	185	126
Vitamin D (IU)	2.2	2.0
Thiamine (mg)	0.068	0.045
Riboflavin (mg)	0.21	0.16
Niacin(mg)	0.27	0.08
Pantothenic acid (mg)	0.31	0.32
Vitamin B6(mg)	0.046	0.042
Folic acid(ug)	1.0	5.0
Biotin(ug)	1.5	2.0
Vitamin B12(ug)	0.065	0.357
Vitamin C(mg)	1.29	0.94

 

Table 3: Relative composition of essential amino acids in goat and cow milk taking human milk as standard.

______________________________

Particulars                 Goat    Cow

_______________________________

Arginine                      277      277

Histidine                     387      387

Isoleucine                    370      355

Leucine                       330      339

Lysine                         426      384

Methionine                  381      395

Phenylalanine              337      346

Threonine                    354      324

Tryptophan                  259      270

Valine                          381      349

________________________________

Source : Haenlein, (2001).

 COMPONENTS OF GOAT MILK AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Goat milk is good food for children and old people. It plays a significant role in health and normal physiological functions. Even though it does not exhibit allergy, it is least consumed by people. The goat milk benefits are by its superior composition and differences in fats, casein, and other micro-constituents compared to cow milk. The goat’s milk is richer in vital nutrients compared cow’s milk. The micronutrients like vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin B5, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, zinc and selenium are present in higher amount than cow’s milk enriching its nutritional significance. Goats milk contains 25% more vitamin A, 13% more calcium, 3 times more niacin, 134% more potassium, and 4 times higher copper than cow’s milk. The constituents and health promoting features of goat’s milk are briefly mentioned here.

Healthy and digestible fat

The total fat percentage in goat and cow milk is quite similar, but the composition of fatty acid depends on the feed in both species. Lipids in goat milk have higher physical characteristics, than in cow milk, but there are variations between different reports (Park, 2006). There are two characteristic features of goat milk fat that will impact on health and product preparation. The first one is that goat’s milk has smaller sized fat globules than cow’s milk. This helps in softer texture of goat milk products. But it poses difficulties in butter processing. Smaller fat globules contribute to better digestibility of goat’s milk. The second characteristics the presence of a higher proportion of medium-chain triglycerides–caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0) and capric (C10:0) acids. These medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) provide direct energy rather than being deposited in adipose tissues. They help in reducing serum cholesterol and prevent their deposition. Medium-chain triglycerides are considered as healthy fat that may be burned for fuel and they help in lowering cholesterol. In addition to medium-chain triglycerides, goat milk also contains higher levels of monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) than cow’s milk. The unsaponifiable matter of milk fat and acid values are not different between goat and cow milk, but goat milk has lower iodine values, which reflects its greater amount on lower and unsaturated fatty acids (Park, 2006). Cow milk has a slightly greater refractive index and higher saponification value than goat milk, which relates to the longer carbon chains and saturation of the fatty acids (Park, 2006). Medium-chain triglycerides are used to treat digestive disorders such as diarrhea, steatorrhea (fat indigestion), celiac disease, liver illness, short bowel syndrome, and digestive problems induced by the surgical removal of a portion of the intestine or stomach (gastrectomy) (Collard et al. 2021). Under average feeding regimes goats’ milk has higher number of minor branched-chain fatty acids and lesser amount of trans-C18: l fatty acids than cow milk. Both the conditions are considered as beneficial for coronary heart patients.

Goat milk nucleotides

Goat milk possesses a unique set of nucleotides in contrast to cow milk.  The nucleotides content of infant formula made from goat milk is equal to human milk without any supplements. These nucleotides are thought to help in many biological processes. They are namely lipoprotein metabolism, immune maturation of the milk-fed offspring, signal transduction and general regulation of cell growth, enhancement of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) plasma concentration, mediation of energy metabolism, synthesis of apolipoprotein (Apo) A1 and Apo A1 V inure-term infants and upregulation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis in neonates.

Free amino acids

Glycine, taurine and glutamic acids are the major free amino acids available in goat milk. (Rutherfurd et al., 2008). The amount of taurine in goats’ milk higher than cow’s milk. Taurine is involved in osmoregulation, bile salt formation, calcium transport, antioxidation and the central nervous system functions. Premature infants lacking the necessary enzymes to convert cystathionine to cysteine and subsequently may become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine is added to many infant formulas as   a dietary essential nutrient. Taurine is beneficial and helps to control blood pressure in adults and thus alleviate other cardiovascular problems (Militante and Lombardini, 2002). Thus, goats’ milk is a rich source of taurine for the infants and adult human beings.

Polyamines

The goat colostrum and milk has got highest polyamines compared to other species milk (Ploszaj et al. 1997). These polyamines are considered as important nutrients for gastrointestinal tract (GIT) cell function, maturation of GIT enzymes and optimal growth in infants. It is also involved in reduction of food allergy in infants (Pegg and McCann, 1982).

Oligosaccharides

Goat milk contains higher oligosaccharides (250-300 mg/L) than cows and sheep’s milk. It is 10 times higher than sheep milk. However, these oligosaccharides are found to be lesser in amount than human milk (5-8g/L).Goat milk oligosaccharides have complex profile which is almost like human milk. Lactose-derived oligosaccharides are much more significant in goat milk than in cow’s milk. Oligosaccharides of human milk have got prebiotic and anti-infective properties which are very much vital in nature. Goat milk oligosaccharides can also contribute several functional properties, including antimicrobial, anti-adhesive and intestinal epithelial cell response modulation. They help as immune modulators and supply nutrients for neonatal brain development and growth of desired gut microflora. Thus, goat milk appears to be an attractive alternative source of human-like oligosaccharides for the neonates. These oligosaccharides mitigate colitis-induced inflammation in mice. These findings may treat inflammatory bowel disease.  Bifidobacteria improve lactose maldigestion and have been linked to several other health benefits, such as increased immunity, protection from pathogenic infections, reduced risk of cancer, and lower cholesterol levels (Clark and Mora García 2017).

GOAT MILK AND HUMAN HELATH

Goat milk has got certain exclusive features that make it more attractive and healthier. In recent years, its nutritional and healthier constituents have been rediscovered. This has enhanced the acceptance of goat milk as a functional food among consumers. This is evident by a significant jump in the goat population and goat milk production. Goat milk also provides superior quality animal protein, lactose, healthier fats and fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals to the consumers. Medicinal value of goat milk has been documented in Indian Ayurveda and Bhavprakash and Nepalese Ayurveda (Nepalese Traditional Medicine) (Bajracharya et al., 2010), and goat milk was recommended as an effective dietary item for the patients suffering from tuberculosis, dysentery, cough and cold and certain gynecological disorders (Pal et al., 2011).

Goat milk is adequate for human infant in niacin and vitamin A supplies generous excesses of thiamin, riboflavin and pantothenate (Jenness, 1980; Haenlein, 2004). It is, however, deficient in vitamins C, D, B12, pyridoxine and folic acid (Park, 1994). Goat milk must be corrected by appropriate fortification for infant feeding.  Goat milk contains about1 g phosphate and 1.2 g calcium per litre; these concentrations are like those in cow milk. Human milk contains lesser minerals than goat milk. The chemical composition, secondary protein structures, and amino acid profile of goat milk differ from cow milk, making it hypoallergenic. Due to its higher functional components, such as probiotic microorganisms and prebiotic chemicals, goat milk can be used in various products. Goat’s milk can be a good alternative for lactose intolerant or suffering from gastrointestinal conditions like ulcers or colitis (Sousa et al. 2019; Rai et al. 2022).

Easy digestibility property

Goat milk fat contains more short- and medium-chain (C4:0- C12:0) fatty acids than cow milk. Goat’s milk absorbs more easily since it has fewer fat globules. Goat milk’s unique protein profile allows for forming of a milder curd, which is easier on the digestive system and more comfortable to eat (Roy et al. 2021). As goat’s milk is easily digestible and less allergic than cow’s milk, making it perfect infant diet. Easier digestibility can be attributed for the absence of agglutinin and the presence of higher short and medium-chain fatty acids. These will prevent the fat globules from clustering.  Goat milk curd is finer than cow milk curd following acidification mimicking the stomach conditions and enhancing the digestibility.

Hypoallergenic property

Goat’s milk is safe for cow-milk allergy sufferers since its proteins are different. Many infants have a cow milk allergy (CMA); however, its reasons remain unknown. CMA has been related to betalactoglobulin, the most prevalent whey protein in cow milk but missing in human breast milk. Many proteins in cow’s milk, including caseins, beta-lactoglobulin, and beta-lactalbumin, have been identified as potential allergens (Ballabio et al. 2011). Recent in-vitro and human research has shown that goat milk has immunomodulatory effects; thus, it may be a good option for those with a cow milk allergy and looking for an alternative. Goat milk has been advised as a substitute for patients allergic to cow milk. Between 40-100% of patients allergic to cow milk proteins tolerate goat milk (Park, 1994). Goat milk contains low levels of αs1-casein and higher amount of β- casein as similar to human milk. The increased digestion of β-lactoglobulin may be due to relative absence of αs1-casein.The prevalence of cow milk allergy is 2.5% among children during their initial 3 years of life. When these children were treated with goat milk, 30 to 40% of the children got benefitted and in one instance up to 49-55 % of children found the positive result.   The low allergenicity in goat milk is probably due to the absence or lower presence of αs1-casein. Goat milk is a better choice for lactose intolerant people since it has lesser (22 to 27 %) lactose content as compared to cow milk (33 to 40 %) (Martemucci and D’Alessandro 2013; Lund and Ahmad 2021).

Reduction of lactose intolerance

Due to its lower lactose content, goat’s milk is more easily absorbed by the human digestive system than cow’s milk. Because goat’s milk has more remarkable lactose absorption ability than cow’s milk, fewer people experience the discomfort of lactose intolerance when drinking it. Some people may be allergic to cow’s milk despite not being lactose intolerant because of the protein as1- casein, which is uncommon in goat’s milk or non-existent in some cases.  Lactose intolerant patients have difficulty in digesting lactose because the undigested sugar is absorbed by the large intestine. Microbes ferment this unhydrolyzed lactose and produce free fatty acids and gas in the large intestine.  This in turn cause cramping, bloating and other gastrointestinal symptoms (Lund and Ahmad 2021).

Due to its softer curd, goat milk is often advised as an alternative to cow’s milk. Higher casein content helps in lactose digestion and reduces the lactose intolerance by hastening the process in the large intestine by which the sugar is absorbed. (Quigley et al. 2013; Rai et al. 2022).

Anti-cancerous property

The medium-chain triglycerides – caproic, caprylic, and capric acids present in higher proportions in Goat milk, exhibit anti-cancerous properties on human colorectal, mammary gland and skin cancer cells. The reduction in cancer cell viability by 70% to 90% was seen by the treatment of medium chain triglycerides. Goat milk also plays important role in prevention against inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Studies have shown that oligosaccharides in goat milk have anti-inflammatory properties. Weight loss predicted colon enlargement and necrotic lesion progression are all halted by the oligosaccharides. The clinical symptoms (diarrhea, and bloody stools) were also less severe, and the immune response was less (less neutrophil infiltration) severe. (Lund and Ahmad 2021). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) concentrations are exceptionally high in goat milk. In vitro research on human melanoma, colorectal and breast cancer, and animal studies on mammary and colon cancer have demonstrated that CLA slows tumor growth. Fermented goat milk has been hypothesized to have antioxidative properties, interfere with the receptor-mediated actions of estrogen, and disrupt the eicosanoid-dependent cell signaling systems, all of which may be involved in CLA’s tumor-inhibitory effects (Lund and Ahmad 2021; Mirzaei et al. 2022).

Immunostimulatory property

Selenium is an important mineral for maintaining a healthy immune system. Selenium levels in cow milk are low, while goat milk levels are much higher, suggesting that it and its derivatives can help people stay healthy by boosting their immune systems. Recent in-vitro and human research has shown that goat milk has immunomodulatory effects; thus, it may be a good option for those with a cow milk allergy and looking for an alternative. In recent findings, goat milk has been demonstrated to have several effects on human blood cells, including inducing cytokine production (IL-10, TNF-α, and IL-6) and NO release. This has revealed antibacterial activity which assists milk drinkers in avoiding becoming sick and safeguards the heart of milk consumers (Van Leeuwen et al. 2020; Kazimierska and Kalinowska-Lis 2021).

Anti-inflammatory property

Goat milk does not promote digestive system inflammation since its fat globules are a tenth the size of cow milk (Novac and Andrei 2020; Hirsiger et al. 2022). The microbiota in goat milk exhibits protective effects at intestinal mucosal sites which normalize the human intestinal microflora by triggering intestinal T cells.  Thus, goat milk is highly recommended for old people and individuals with inflammatory and allergic conditions.

Anti-microbial property

Goat milk’s lactoperoxidase protein is efficient against a wide range of bacteria, including those that cause pneumonia (Klebsiella pneumoniae), cholera (Vibrio cholerae), dysentery (Shigella dysenteriae), typhoid (Salmonella typhi), and food poisoning (Staphylococcus aureus) (Quigley et al. 2013; Clark and Mora García 2017).

 Anti-diarrheal property

Goat milk oligosaccharides have anti-inflammatory properties due to their ability to bind and remove a wide variety of pathogens, as well as to inhibit the heat-stable enterotoxin produced by Escherichia coli and to prevent the contact between leukocytes and endothelial cells (Novac and and Anderi 2020) . E.coli causing childhood diarrhea is major problem in developing countries. Transgenic goats developed by scientists which secrete lysozymes in their milk. The animals recovered quickly from E coli infection when they were fed with transgenic goat milk. Therefore, consumption of the transgenic goat milk with lysozyme expected to speed up recovery from diarrhoea in children. The soft curd of goat milk may be an advantage for adult humans suffering from gastrointestinal disturbances and ulcers (Haenlein, 2004). High buffering capacity of goat milk appears to be useful for treatment of gastric ulcers (Park, 1994).

Amelioration of malabsorption syndrome

The intestinal fat absorption rate is significantly improved in infants suffering from malabsorption syndrome by goat milk supplementation. Goat milk improved Fe bioavailability and increased the Fe deposition in target organs in artificially induced ferropenic anaemic laboratory animals. Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCT) and medium chain length fatty acid are more in goat milk. These have been recognized as unique lipid with unique health benefits in mal-absorption syndromes, steatorrhea, chyluria, hyperlipoproteinemia and in cases of intestinal resection, coronary bypass, premature infant feeding, childhood epilepsy, cystic fibrosis and gallstones. MCT dissolves cholesterol gallstones and limits cholesterol deposition, contributes to normal growth of infants (Roy and Vadodaria, 2006)

 Goat milk products and their importance in human nutrition

In Indian scenario, goat milk is produced in small farms. But in western countries fresh goat milk is sold as pasteurized milk and in variety of packaging in health food shops and super markets. Roy and Vadodaria, 2006 reported that fresh milk obtained under sanitary conditions from properly fed and managed healthy goats is free from objectionable flavour and odour.  Many traditional milk products like Khoa mawa, Paneer, Chhana, Ice-cream, milk powder, pasteurized beverages can be prepared from Goat milk. In USA and South Africa, goat milk is sold in evaporated or spray dried form for pediatric use. Baby formulas made from goat milk are of high quality. A special beverage out of the goat milk by standardizing to 2% fat and 10.5% SNF, fortified with Vitamin A and D to label it as protein fortified low fat goat milk. Good quality yoghurt can be prepared and it is very popular and available on most super market shelves. The characteristic goaty flavour is completely masked in goat milk yoghurt. Another positive aspect is that it does not show wheying off at 4°C storage as in case of unhomogenized cow milk yoghurt. The average milk fat (globule) size is small and therefore, fat does not tend to rise to the top on keeping and it is difficult to separate fat for making cream, butter or ghee. In addition, ghee from goat milk is greasy. Therefore, blending of goat milk with buffalo milk in 1:1 ratio yields good quality ghee. Soft and semi hard varieties of cheeses are made from goat milk. In many European countries, these cheeses are marketed as Premium Cheese. Pal et al., 2011 reported that Greece and France have the largest goat milk cheese production. In India, goat milk has been used for making hard cheese. The main advantages with Goat cheese are lower in calories, cholesterol and fat than its bovine counterpart and easier on the human digestive system. It’s also rich in calcium, protein, vitamin A, vitamin K, phosphorus, niacin and thiamin. The fats found in goat milk products are high in middle chain fatty acids, which are easier for the body to process than those found in cow’s milk (Anon., 2012). Fermented goat milk (Lactobacillus fermentus ME-3) has antioxidative and antiatherogenic effects in healthy people. Fermented goat milk containing a mixed starter culture (Lactobacillus helveticas PR4, Streptococcus thermophilus CR12, and Lactobacillus plantarum 1288) reduced hypertension by producing GABA (gamma amino-butyric acid) as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (Kok and Hutkins 2018; Mirzaei et al. 2022). Recently, it has been demonstrated that consuming fermented goat milk (Lactobacillus rhamnosus CRL1505) can improve mucosal immunity and resistance to intestinal and respiratory infections in an immunosuppression mouse model.

Several research reports conclude that goat milk can potentially serve as a neutraceutical health beverage. Those who are intolerant to or allergic to the proteins in cow’s milk can get what they need from goat’s milk (Lejaniya et al. 2021). Anyone with anemia, osteoporosis or malabsorption issues might also benefit from consuming goat milk. Children and infants benefit more from goat milk than cow’s milk; Furthermore, because goat milk is low in folic acid, it is necessary to augment replacement diets with folic acid when goat milk products are used (Lund and Ahmad 2021).

Conclusion

Goat, universally recognized as “poor man’s cow”, has to be fully exploited to get maximum benefits, particularly milk and milk products having medicinal values. It has significant role in rural economy and human health as proved by several studies. Researches on goat milk have shown the presence of several bioactive constitute mediating vital physiological activities. However, “goaty odour” has created lots of prejudice and myths in the consumers’ mind, affecting their acceptability. Creating awareness among consumers on the nutritional and healthier properties of goat milk, regulatory support from the government for the production and processing of goat milk products, establishment of market network to get premium price for goat products, conducting further research to establish the advantages of goat milk will help in improvement of goat sector and improving the rural economy and human health.

References:

Anonymous, (2012). Health Benefits of Goat Cheese. Available at: http://www.redwoodhill.com/artisan-cheese/ health-benefits-of-goat-cheese.

Bajracharya M. B., Tillotson A. and Caldecott T. (2010). Review of Ayurvedic Medicines ñ Formulas. Available at: http://www.ayurvedainnepal.com/medicine/reviewof-ayurvedic-medicines-formulas

Ballabio, C., Chessa, S., Rignanese, D., Gigliotti, C., et al. (2011). Goat milk allergenicity as a function of αs₁-casein genetic polymorphism. Journal of Dairy Science, 94(2), 998-1004. doi: 10.3168/jds.2010-3545

Chandran, D. (2021). Veterinary phytomedicine in India: A review. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 8(3), 598-605. doi: 10.32628/ IJSRST2183135.

Clark, S., & Mora García, M.B. (2017). A 100-year review: Advances in goat milk research. Journal of Dairy Science, 100(12), 10026-10044. doi: 10.3168/jds.2017-13287.

Collard, K.M., & McCormick, D.P. (2021). A nutritional comparison of cow’s milk and alternative milk products. Academia Pediatratics, 21(6), 1067-1069. doi: 10.1016/j.acap.2020.12.007.

Deepak, C., Uma, R., & Linu, E. (2020a). Characterization of Malabari goat lactoferrin and its pepsin hydro-lysate. Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 51(1), 40-47.

Devendra C. (1999). Goats: challenges for increased productivity and improved livelihoods. Outlook on Agriculture, 28: 215-226.

Haenlein G. F. W. (2001). The Nutritive Value of Sheep Milk, Inter. J. Anim. Sci. 160(2): 253-268

Haenlein G. F. W. and Wendorff W. L. (2006). Sheep milkó production and utilization of sheep milk. In: Park, Y.W., Haenlein, G.F.W. (Eds.), Handbook of Milk of NonBovine Mammals. Blackwell Publishing Professional, Oxford, UK, and Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 137ñ 194

Haenlein, G.F.W. 2004. Goat milk in human nutrition. Small Ruminant Research, 51(2): 155-163.

Hatziminaoglou, Y. and Boyazoglu, J. 2004. The goat in ancient civilisations: from the Fertile Crescent to the Aegean Sea. Small Ruminant Research, 51(2): 123- 129

Hirsiger, J.R., Heijnen, I.A., Hartmann, K., & Berger, C.T. (2022). Anaphylaxis to goat’s and sheep’s milk in an adult who tolerated cow’s milk: A sensitization profile study. Journal of Investigative Allergology and Clinical Immunology, 32(2), 154-156. doi: 10.18176/jiaci.0721.

Iqbal A., Khan B.B., Tariq M. and Mirza M.A. (2008). Goat-A Potential Dairy Animal: Present and Future Prospects. Pak. J. Agri. Sci., 45(2): 227-230

Jenness R. (1980). Composition and characteristics of goat milk: Review. J. Dairy Sci., 63: 1605-1630.

Ju`arez M. and Ramos M. (1986). Physico-chemical characteristics of goat milk as distinct from those of cow milk. In: International Dairy Federation (Ed.), Proceedings of the IDF Seminar Production and Utilization of Eweís and Goatís Milk, Bulletin No. 202. Athens, Greece, pp. 54-67.

Kazimierska, K., & Kalinowska-Lis, U. (2021). Milk proteins, their biological activities and use in cosmetics and dermatology. Molecules, 26(11), 3253. doi: 10.3390/molecules26113253.

Kiskini, A., & Difilippo, E. (2013). Oligosaccharides in goat milk: structure, health effects and isolation. Cell and Molecular Biology (Noisy-le-grand), 59(1), 25-30,

Kok, C.R., & Hutkins, R. (2018). Yoghurt and other fermented foods as sources of health-promoting bacteria. Nutrition Reviews, 76(1), 4-15. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuy056.

Lejaniya, A.S., Chandran, D., Venkatachalapathy, T., Bashir, B.P., et al. (2021a). Analysis of milk production performance of Attappadi Black, Malabari and cross-bred goats under organized farm conditions of Kerala. The Indian Veterinary Journal, 98(05), 13-19.

Lund, A., & Ahmad, M. (2021). Production potential, nutritive value and nutraceutical effects of goat milk. Journal of Animal Health Production, 9(1), 65-71. Doi: 10.17582/journal.jahp/2021/ 9.1.65.71

Martemucci, G., & D’Alessandro, A.G. (2013). Progress in nutritional and health profile of milk and dairy products: a novel drug target. Endocrine Metabolism, Immune Disorders and Drug Targets, 13(3), 209-233. doi: 10.2174/18715303113136660045.

Militante, J.D. and Lombardini, J.B. 2002. Treatment of hypertension with oral taurine: experimental and clinical studies. Amino Acids, 23: 381–393.

Mirzaei, H., & Sharafati Chaleshtori, R. (2022). Role of fermented goat milk as a nutritional product to improve anemia. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 46(6), e13969. doi: 10.1111/jfbc.13969

Novac, C.S., & Andrei, S. (2020). The impact of mastitis on the biochemical parameters, oxidative and nitrosative stress markers in goat’s milk: A review. Pathogens, 9(11), 882. doi: 10.3390/ pathogens9110882.

Pal U. K., Mandal P. K., Rao V. K. and Das C. D. (2011). Quality and Utility of Goat Milk with Special Reference to India: An Overview. Asian J. of Animal Sci., 5: 56-63.

Park Y. W. (1994). Hypo-allergenic and therapeutic significance of goat milk. Small Rumin. Res. 14: 151-161.

Park Y. W. (2006). Goat milkóchemistry and nutrition. In: Park,Y.W., Haenlein, G.F.W. (Eds.), Handbook of Milk of Non-bovine Mammals. Blackwell Publishing Professional, Oxford, UK/Ames, Iowa, pp. 34-58

Park Y.W., Ju’arez M., Ramos M. and Haenlein G. F. W. (2007). Physico-chemical characteristics of goat and sheep milk. Small Rumin. Res. 68: 88-113.

Park, Y.W. 2007. Impact of goat milk and milk products on human nutrition. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2007: 2, No. 081. CAB Online Journal. ISSN 1749-8848.

Pegg, A.E. and McCann, P.P. 1982. Polyamine metabolism and function. American Journal of Physiology, 243: C212–C221.

Ploszaj, T., Ryniewicz, Z. and Motyl, T. 1997. Polyamines in goat’s colostrum and milk. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, 118(1): 45-52.

Prakash S. and Jenness R. (1968). The composition and characteristics of goat milk: Review. Dairy Sci. Abstr., 30: 67-72

Quigley, L., O’Sullivan, O., Stanton, C., Beresford, T.P., Ross, R.P., Fitzgerald, G.F., & Cotter, P.D. (2013). The complex microbiota of raw milk. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 37(5), 664- 98. doi: 10.1111/1574-6976.12030

Rai, D.C., Rathaur, A. & Yadav, A.K. (2022). Nutritional and nutraceutical properties of goat milk for human health: A review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 75(1), 1-10. doi: 10.33785/ IJDS.2022.v75i01.001.

Roy S. K. and Vadodaria V. P. (2006). Goat Milk and Its Importance. Indian Dairyman, 58 (3): 65-69.

Roy, D., Ye, A., Moughan, P.J., & Singh, H. (2021). Structural changes in cow, goat, and sheep skim milk during dynamic in vitro gastric digestion. Journal of Dairy Science, 104(2), 1394-1411. doi: 10.3168/jds.2020-18779.

Rutherfurd, S.M., Moughan, P.J., Lowry, D. and Prosser, C.G. 2008. Amino acid composition determined using multiple hydrolysis times for three goat milk formulations. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 59(7-8): 679- 690.

Sahoo A, Rahaman H (2023). Donkey & non-bovine milk. Souvenir cum Proceeding Stakeholder Meet. 13^th Dec 2022, ICAR-National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner, India. Pp 81-93.

Silva, E.J. 2005. Cosméticos com leite de cabra. Capritec, E. S. do Pinhal, p.61

Singh S. K., Singh M. K. and Singh N. P. (2006). Role of goats in sustainable rural livelihoods in India. In Goats – Undervalued Assets in Asia. Proceedings of the AphcaIlri Regional Workshop on Goat Production Systems and Markets. Luang Prabang, Lao PDR, 24 ñ 25 October 2006.

Smith, V. 2006. Food fit for the soul of a pharaoh: The mortuary Temple’s bakeries and breweries. Expedition, 48(2): 27-30.

Sousa, Y.R.F., Araújo, D.F.S., Pulido, J.O., Pintado, M.M.E., Martínez-Férez, A., & Queiroga, R.C.R.E. (2019). Composition and isolation of goat cheese whey oligosaccharides by membrane technology. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 139, 57-62. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.07.181.

Sreekumar D and Sreenivasaiah P V (2015). Small scale Livestock Production, Write & Print Publications, New Delhi-110015.

Van Leeuwen, S.S., Te Poele, E.M., Chatziioannou, A.C., Benjamins, E., Haandrikman, A., & Dijkhuizen, L. (2020). Goat milk oligosaccharides: Their diversity, quantity, and functional properties in comparison to human milk oligosaccharides. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 68(47), 13469-13485. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03766.