USE OF BOVINE AMNIOTIC FLUID AND PLANCENTAL MATERIAL IN THERAPEUTICS & COSMETIC INDUSTRY:POTENTIAL & ECONOMIC VALUE
Potential commercial and economic value of bovine amniotic fluid and placental material
The placenta is a temporary organ that connects the foetus to mother’s organism. Its primary purpose is to ensure the healthy development of the new life growing inside the womb. The placenta produces many nutrients and other vital resources, such as growth hormones, progesterone, oestrogen and proteins.
Nature has made it so that the baby animal doesn’t use all of the placenta’s resources; it has more substances than necessary, just in case. After giving birth, neither the female animal nor her baby need the placenta anymore, so it is simply left over. This is where the beauty industry steps in to put the remaining nutrients to use for people.
Placenta extract is known for its potent healing properties. It includes plenty of proteins, hormones, growth factors, vitamins and other components. These are all good for hair in particular, making them stronger and increasing their growth.
It has been proven that placenta extract has the following effects:
– Supports capillary microcirculation. Poor blood circulation could be the reason behind poor hair growth or hair falling out. Placenta extract improves scalp blood supply, which, in turn, helps hair follicles function properly, that is, to grow new, healthy strands of hair. The healthier base also ensures that the hair won’t fall out easily.
– Improves scalp. The beauty of hair is largely dependent on the scalp’s condition. Placenta extract creates a super thin film-like layer on the scalp, preventing moisture loss without excess sebum. This provides the outermost layer of skin (stratum corneum) enough moisture, giving the scalp a healthy look. Placenta extract also supports collagen production, which is indisputably the foundation of youthful looks.
– Strengthens and nourishes hair. Protein one of the ingredients of placenta extract and the main building material of hair plays an important role in increasing hair strength. This softens the cuticle, making hair strands less prone to breakage and split ends. A nourished and strong strand of hair is lustrous and shiny.
Placenta treatment is especially good for bleached or otherwise chemically treated hair, as it are often tired and visibly struggles with dryness. After the treatment, the hair is moisturised and easier to control.
How is placenta extract made?
When it comes to using the placenta in beauty industry, strict rules apply for processing the placenta, starting with the requirement that allows only placentas from healthy purebred animals to be used.
Once the placenta is collected after the baby animal has been born, the first priority is to freeze it to preserve the freshness of its nutrients. When it reaches the factory, it is thawed and filtered several times using a special machine to remove all kinds of sediments and residues. Further processing in an alkaline environment eliminates all viruses and diseases the animal may have suffered from.
After that the purified placenta is separated into parts (chorion, amnion and umbilical cord). The beauty industry mainly uses the amnion. It includes large amounts of collagen, which is then finely ground and frozen. The next step is to add the collagen into a care product. The final result is pure and extremely nutritious.
The cosmetics industry mainly uses placenta of animal origin, collected from sheep, cows or pigs. Their placentas are biologically very similar to the human placenta, but since many people do not eat pork because of religious reasons, the main placenta sources for the beauty industry are sheep and cows.
The placenta used in hair and skin products is collected from animals who have just given birth. The placenta is naturally expelled from the animal’s body during labour. No animals are harmed or killed to collect it. There are strict rules in place in the EU concerning the use of animals in the beauty industry. All animal testing is prohibited, but using products of animal origin (milk, placenta) is allowed, provided that it does not compromise the wellbeing of animals.
When placenta extract was first used in the beauty industry, it contained all the hormones originally found in it. Since the placenta includes plenty of oestrogen, progesterone and other growth hormones, it was observed that it may cause an imbalance in the human endocrine system.
Studies showed that abundant use resulted in hair growing where it was not supposed to grow. The industry learned from that! Nowadays, the placenta extract used in products includes as few hormones as possible. This means they have no negative side effects whatsoever on the human organism.
Currently amniotic fluid from livestock has little commercial value and much of it goes to render or is discarded in meat processing plants and dairies. It is known that amniotic fluid contains numerous biologically active peptides and other bioactive molecules that are involved in the protection and development of the foetus and the amniotic membrane (Berger and Bergemann, 1958). The individual concentrations of active molecules are very low (100 -1000 pg/ml) but combinations and ratios of bioactives vary through the stages of gestation. (See Appendix 12 for a list of bioactives reported in the literature to date). Similarly, placenta currently does not have a high commercial value in Australia and most goes to render. In the past bovine placenta has been exported to Japan in container load quantities but the operation ceased due to perceived animal welfare concerns, the BSE concerns of 2001 and due to attitudes within the work force. Meat processors could become active in and gain more value from the bioactives industry by establishing well defined collection activities. A further option could be the establishment of extraction plants close to their abattoirs to boost their revenues and expand their activities. The gaps (accreditation and capacity) that have been identified in the value chain for placental and amniotic fluid derived products in Australia. These gaps are common to the bioactives industry and lead the possible value adding opportunities being lost to the Australian meat processors. The lower volumes of placenta and amniotic fluid available in Australia compared to countries such as China and the USA mean that there is little established infrastructure (capacity) for their collection and processing. Accreditation is expensive and difficult to obtain and so processors and other members of the supply chain are discouraged. These issues add costs and would indicate that Australia products will be more expensive but may do well with marketing on quality and safety.
Placentation in Ruminants
The term placenta is used loosely in some literature and by many industry personnel, so it is important to note that some processors collect the complete uterus containing the membranes and slink while others collect the membranes only. Both are further processed under the term “placenta”. The yield would be vastly different in that the placental membranes weight approximately 200-600 g at term (Wallace et al., 2002) while a gravid uterus including the slink would be approximately 2,650g at midterm gestation (Grazu-Bilska et al., 2006). The bioactive components will differ. The placental bioactive molecules identified in Appendix 14 are present in the placental membranes rather than the whole uterus. Furthermore, the term “amniotic fluid” is sometimes used to describe combined allantoic and amniotic fluids. In Appendix 13, the bioactives are reported separately for these 2 fluids. In the interest of clarifying the terminology the following section describes the differences between the placentation methods in humans and ruminations. The means by which the foetus is attached to the uterus and the compartmentalisation of fluids surrounding the foetus are different in ruminants compared to humans. In humans, the membranes of the foetus attaches to the mother at single site in the uterine wall, creating a structure known as the placenta. This organ is comprised of both maternal and foetal tissues, which become enlarged, and highly vascularised through the course of the pregnancy. The maternal and foetal tissues interdigitate with each other and so the entire structure appears as one, which overall resembles a fleshy dinner plate. At birth, the entire placenta, comprising both maternal and foetal tissues, is expelled from the mother. This expulsion has led to the name ‘decidua’ given to this structure. Ruminants do not have a true placenta as is observed in humans. They differ in that the foetal membranes instead attach at numerous sites to the uterus as compared to humans where attachment is singular. For each of these attachment sites, there is a swelling on the maternal side known as a caruncle, which contacts a similarly vascularised node on the foetal side known as a cotyledon. Each of these combined structures is known as a placentome (<www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/placenta/ruminants.html>). The placentomes of cattle differ from the placenta in humans, in that in cattle the maternal portion is not shed post-parturition, but instead are retained in the uterus. Ruminants are thus said to be nondeciduous. Ruminants further differ from humans in the way that the fluids surrounding the foetus are distributed. In all pregnancies there are three membranes that surround the foetus. The inner most membrane surrounding the foetus is known as the amnion. External to this are two more membranes, the chorion and the allantois, which are fused in mammals to form a single layer known as the chorioallantois. The fluid immediately surrounding the foetus is amniotic fluid. This in turn is surrounded by the allantoic fluid, which is confined between the amnion and the chorioallantois. In human pregnancies, the volume of amniotic fluid is large and takes up the majority of the interuterine space. Only a small amount of allantoic fluid is present. In contrast, in ruminant pregnancies, the volumes of the allantoic and amniotic fluid are similar to each other. In these animals, the allantoic membrane immediately surrounds the foetus and with the allantois creating an outer layer which also extends into each of the horns of the uterus. This is significant because it means that any fluid collected from the intra-uterine cavity is likely to contain both allantoic and amniotic fluids, whereas in humans only amniotic fluid is significant. The compositions of amniotic and allantoic fluid are similar but have some important differences. Both fluids are derived from foetal urine but differ due to active transport across their respective membranes. The two fluids play slightly different roles, as the amniotic fluid is in direct contact with the foetus, whereas the allantoic fluid forms a protective outer layer, which is postulated to have a greater role in deterring infection.
Potential uses of amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid is a colourless liquid that surrounds and protects the foetus inside the amniotic sac within the uterus. It consists mostly of water, mesenchymal stem cells and many biologically active substances including cytokines, proteins and growth factors. During pregnancy the amniotic fluid increases in volume as the foetus grows and there is approximately 8 litres of bovine amniotic fluid at term. Historically, amniotic fluid has not been greatly utilized, but in recent years there has been some research around possible applications. These centre mainly on the use of human amniotic fluid. A small volume of ovine amniotic fluid is currently collected in Australia and most is exported to Asia for use in the cosmetic industry. A small amount is also utilized by the Australian cosmetics industry in lotions and creams for export products. A large volume of bovine amniotic fluid is currently discarded in Australian meat processing plants. This volume is estimated to be approximately 350,000 litres per year. Facilities in abattoirs, which collect foetal blood, would be suitable as collection points with a small amount of alteration to current operations. Upon collection this material could be fractionated for specific molecules such as growth factors or the fluid could be formulated for applications such as cosmetics and Chinese medicine. We have identified maturation of neonates, wound healing, bone healing, burn and scar treatment, ophthalmology, neurology, amniotic stem cell culture, stem cell culture, Chinese medicine and cosmetics as potential applications for amniotic fluid or components thereof.
Wound healing and burns and scarring
Wound healing is an important natural response to preserve the integrity of any complex organism. Over history man has experimented with many natural materials such as spider webs, animal dung, extracts from various species of animal and insects, leaves, tree bark, honey, vinegar, beer and wine to promote it. However wound care has been based on simple bandaging for many centuries. However as our knowledge and understanding of the mechanisms of tissue repair increases more sophisticated approaches are under development. The application of growth factors, hormones and cytokines, use of tissue matrix products, chemical manipulation (protease inhibitors) and mechanical devices such as vacuum assisted wound closure, new methods of debridement (biosurgery), hyperbaric oxygen and healing enhancement products are all currently in use ( Sussman 2007). Commercial products that contain animal derived actives are Apligraf (bi-layered cell therapy) and Integra (dermal regeneration template) both of which contain bovine products (collagen type I and growth factors) while Oasis is a wound matrix prepared from porcine submucosa. These indicate that if an animal product is effective then the clinician and consumer will accept it. The major companies working in the wound healing area are J&J (Ethicon), Bayer, Smith and Nephew, 3M, and Kinetic Concepts Inc. None of these organizations currently conduct developmental work in Australia. Prof. Sussman suggested that there could be an application for amniotic fluid components in the treatment of internal surgery wounds particularly with tissues such as lung.
Maturation of preterm neonates
One of the most lucrative potential applications for bovine amniotic fluid is assisting in the development of pre-term infants. In utero, the developing foetus swallows amniotic fluid which in humans occurs at a rate of >250 ml/kg foetal weight/day. In sheep it has been shown that amniotic fluid and colostrum whey proteins markedly stimulate the development of the small intestine and the immune system of the foetus (Trahair and Sangild 2000). This work also showed that oesophageal ligation results in a gut-specific growth retardation which can be restored by reversing the ligation (which reinstates swallowing). Analysis of hospital data of preterm infants shows that feeding with human milk soon after delivery markedly decreases time to full feeding and the length of stay in hospital. However, mothers of premature babies often cannot produce their own milk, and colostrum is not easily procured from another source thus creating a possible application for amniotic fluid or extracts of the same.
Stem cell culture
There has been recent research on the culture media used to support embryonic stem cells in the laboratory setting with the aim of replacing animal derived supplements in mediums. Companies such as Invitrogen and Chemicon (Millipore) have developed serum free media for these applications. This work is still reliant on murine feeder cells (3T3) but human feeder lines are being investigated (pers. comm. Zee Upton July 2007). Animal derived products could be a cost effective alternative for cell maintenance and amniotic fluid (or components of) could be useful in this application particularly if the fluid from various stages of gestation was investigated. A conversation with Sean Meehan of Millipore (at the time of interview he was the Australasian manager of their stem cell product line) indicated that the stem cell market in general is interested in recombinant products but he did consider that some of the growth factors from amniotic fluid could be of interest. He also saw some merit in amniotic fluid being used in mouse stem cell culture media. Australia has a strong interest in stem cell research with many groups such as Monash University and CSIRO’s Livestock Industries working in the area.
Other Clinical Applications
Adhesions
Animal studies have demonstrated that amniotic fluid may be useful in the prevention of adhesions. Ozgenel et al., (2001) found that human amniotic fluid to be effective in preventing peritendinous adhesion formation without impairment of tendon healing in a rabbit model. Durmus and Han (2006) performed experiments using a Wistar rat model to show that bovine amniotic fluid is effective in the prevention of intra – abdominal adhesions. This result is thought to be the result of a relationship between the high concentrations of hyaluronic acid and its stimulating activators in bovine amniotic fluid.
Neurology and repair
Experiments are indicating that amniotic fluid may have a role in neurological medicine and some research has shown encouraging results. Ozgenel and Filiz (2003) investigated the effects of human amniotic fluid on peripheral nerve scarring and regeneration in rats and found that nerves treated with amniotic fluid had greater fibre maturation possibly due to the rich content of neurotrophic and neurite-promoting factors. Another study by Lee and Kim (1996) demonstrated that topical application of amniotic fluid led to faster nerve regeneration and recovery of sensitivity in rabbits’ eyes following excimer laser photokeratectomy. These results suggest that the factors in AF helped the recovery of corneal sensitivity, nerve regeneration, and reduced scar formation.
Bone healing
There is evidence that amniotic fluid has an effect on bone healing. Karacal et al., (2005) performed experiments on rabbits with calvarial (cranial) defects and found that human amniotic fluid increases ossification in bone healing. Histological examination at 6 weeks postoperative revealed that the defects treated with human amniotic fluid group had superior ossification compared with the control group defects.
Ophthalmology
There has been experimentation with human amniotic fluid as a topical treatment in the field of ophthalmology. Herretes et al., (2006) performed mouse trials and found that topical application of preterm and term human amniotic fluid was an effective therapy for limiting the damage after acute alkali burns of the eye. Similarly Brito et al., (2004) ran trials with rabbits using 15 week gestation and full term human amniotic fluid and determined that the topical application of term amniotic fluid reduces corneal neovascularization and so seems to aid the recovery of the ocular surface after ocular alkali burns.
Cosmetics
Amniotic liquid does not have a long history of uses within the cosmetics industry but there appears to be a growing interest in ovine fluid. The FDA says that it is “promoted for beauty benefits and has limited use in moisturizers, hair lotions, scalp treatments and shampoos” (<www.fda.gov/fdac/reprints/puffery.html>). There have been reports that amniotic fluid is processed and put into capsules and marketed as a beauty product in Asia (pers. comm. Craig Pearson July 2007). Bruce Galloway of Galpac Pty Ltd (Geelong) told us that they have collected and processed ovine amniotic fluid for the cosmetics industry and in particular for the Sydney based Pharma Cosmetics Pty Ltd, which is a formulator and contract manufacturer of cosmetics. A conversation with Pharma-Cosmetics confirmed that they do manufacture amniotic fluid containing lotions and creams for the Asian market. They indicated that there is little interest for these products within Australia. Galpac also manufactures a product called placental oil for use in facial lotions and creams, which is a by-product of the placental powdering process and has high hyaluronan content. There are some cosmetic products on the market, which contain amniotic fluid, which target the anti-ageing market .
Amniotic cells and stem cells
Amniotic stem cells are increasingly been used in cosmetic tissue repair procedures in humans over recent years. One current cosmetic procedure utilizes bovine amniotic fluid cells for antiageing treatment and is approved by FDA. Opportunities involving amniotic stem cells from animals would be around tissue repair, which could be applied to high value animals with deformities or injuries. The Australian race horse and stud cattle industries breed highly valuable progeny and preserve stock with desirable traits and so the high costs of tissue repair procedures may be accepted.
Composition and Bioactives in Amniotic Fluid
Amniotic fluid contains many biologically active peptides such as collagens and proteoglycans, growth factors and other bioactive molecules that are involved in the protection and development of the foetus and the amniotic membrane (Berger and Bergemann, 1958). The individual concentrations of active molecules are very low (100 -1000 pg/ml). Appendix 12 lists the components in amniotic fluid that have been identified thus far. Most studies have focused on a single molecule or activity at a single gestation period and are associated with pathologies of human pregnancy. Amniotic fluid also contains six major proteins (total concentration of 3 g/100ml – Michel et al., 2006). The major proteins are important in a range of biological activities.
Commercial Potential
There are few commercial products containing amniotic fluid currently in the market place but some USA and European beauty salons use bovine amniotic fluid stem cells for skin rejuvenation procedures. This is an important observation because there are currently few commercial products containing amniotic fluid in market place and the components are in low concentrations. Products derived from amniotic fluid could target a niche market in the developed world market place. Asian consumers (particularly Japanese and Korean) will pay premium prices for high quality, safe cosmetic products and could potentially represent a further niche market.
Economic Potential
Bovine amniotic fluid is not currently collected so there are no established values for the raw material. Ovine fluid is collected in small volumes (we believe approximately 60 litres/year). One industry source suggested that an abattoir would need to ask at least AUD$3/kg (or litre) to justify a collection activity. Because there is so little material utilized it is difficult to estimate yields or expected returns. Wound healing devices is an area where amniotic fluid factors have potential applications and this market could be developed in the developing world where the burn and injury incidence is high and there is a need for cheap, simple treatments. In the developed world there is an opportunity to use AF factors in the treatment of venous ulcers, which are associated with diabetes. This would be a longer termed project and require accreditation from TGA.
Potential uses of amniotic membrane
Amniotic membrane is the translucent innermost layer of the placenta and consists of a thin epithelial layer, supported by a basement membrane that is in turn connected to a thin connective tissue membrane by filamentous strands. In early history it was considered lucky for a child to be born with these membranes intact. The first recorded clinical application of human amniotic membrane was in 1910 when it was used in skin transplantation. Thereafter it has been used in surgical procedures related to the genito-urinary tract, skin, brain, and head and neck, and others (Dua et al., 2004). In 1980s the Russians developed “Allotransplantat” (preserved human foetal membrane) which was used by Russian and other European doctors in conjunctival, tarsal, orbital and tendon surgery. In more recent times amniotic membrane has been experimented with for grafting applications for the treatment of wounds and burns but the work was discontinued due to concerns around HIV (pers. comm. Prof. Fiona Wood, Royal Perth Hospital). There are two cell types of different embryological origin precent in amniotic membrane: amnion epithelial cells derived from the embryonic ectoderm and amnion mesenchymal cells from the embryonic mesoderm making it an interesting matrix for some stem cell culture applications. The applications that have been identified all utilize human amniotic membrane except one, which uses bovine material. We have identified clinical applications including burns treatment, wound healing, bone and cartilage repair, ophthalmologic treatments and as a stem cell matrix as potential applications for amnioticmembrane.
Clinical Applications
Burns
Wound Healing
Bone and Cartilage Repair
Ophthalmology
Stem Cell Culture Matrix
Potential uses of placental material—
Placenta material has a long history of health related applications particularly in the Chinese culture, which has attributed its therapeutic benefits to it especially when combined with certain herbs, for at least 1400 years. This long history means that the placental market is far more mature than those of amniotic fluid and membrane. Western scientists have conducted research around the clinical advantages of sheep placenta since the 1930s. Through repeated experiments, Filatov, a well-known Russian scientist, concluded that sheep placenta had a mitigating effect against tissue degeneration (anti-aging effect) and helped in healing of traumatized tissues and ulcers. Japanese and Western scientists have also conducted research around the therapeutic benefits of sheep placenta. We have identified Chinese medicine, cosmetics and clinical applications such as vitiligo treatment, wound and fracture healing and burns treatment as well as industrial applications, as potential uses for placenta. This section of the report is structured towards investigating these applications. Appendix 13 lists some components of placenta and their assigned bioactive properties.
Asian Medicinal Applications
In traditional Chinese medicine the human placenta is considered to be an invaluable part of the postpartum healing process for both mother and child. For thousands of years, the Chinese people have revered placenta in their Materia Medica as regenerative. It is considered to be “full of Qi (life force)”, which aids in recovery from childbirth, restores lost hormones, augments lactation, shortens bleeding time, prevents mood swings, and ultimately helps the child in this vital time of bonding and nurturing. In Chinese medicine placenta (combined with herbs) is used to treat asthma, kidney conditions and male and female fertility conditions. Human placenta is still used in more traditional markets. For example the Shanghai Institute of Biological Products (SIBP) has been certified as a designated unit for collecting human placentas from hospitals. SIBP pays hospitals 5 yuan (60 US cents) for each placenta, processes them into medical preparations, involving more than 20 different procedures, and sells the placental powder for about 400 to 600 yuan (USD$48 to 72) per 1 kg (<app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/2005/0602/fo4- 1.html>). Prof. Lin pointed out that bovine placenta is rarely used in Chinese medicine because cattle products are looked on as sources of food rather than having therapeutic properties. He also said that sheep and deer products are also food sources but are considered to be more gentle and pure than cattle products and have more ‘warm energy’. Prof. Xue stated that for the complementary medicine industry attention should be primarily given to quality and safety instead of efficacy. Traditionally, the determination of the therapeutic effects was not based on the chemical components of the medicinal substances.
Cosmetic applications
Human placenta has been used for a variety of cosmetic applications for many years. When placental materials were first used as cosmetic ingredients in the 1940s, manufacturers promoted the products as providing beneficial hormonal effects such as stimulating tissue growth and removing wrinkles. Later, the hormone content and the tissue-growth and wrinkle-removing claims led to the classification of placenta-containing products as drugs. There are traditional (China) and preference (India) constraints on bovine products but bovine stem cells are currently used in Europe and US for beauty applications indicating that these markets would accept bovine placental products that are guaranteed clean of BSE. TGA accreditation is not necessary for cosmetics as long as the hormone levels of the finished product are below those set out in section 6.5.2 and unless specific claims are made so this opportunity could be developed by companies with the necessary infrastructure such Sphere and PharmaCosmetics.
Clinical applications
Vitiligo
Vitiligo results in a patchy loss of pigmentation due to the demelanization of melanocytes. Whilst it is not considered physically harmful, its emotional and psychological effects can be devastating. A social consequence is that, in India, women with the disease are sometimes discriminated against in marriage and developing vitiligo after marriage can be grounds for divorce. Currently narrow band ultra-violet light of type B is the treatment of choice worldwide for vitiligo. Extracts from placenta may play a role in treating vitilgo have been trialled both in vitro and in vivo. These extracts proved to be a strong stimulant
Wound healing
Wound healing is a dynamic and complex process that can be divided into three main and partially overlapping phases: the early inflammatory, the intermediate proliferative, and the late tissue remodelling phases. In diabetics, wound healing becomes defective, often resulting in ulcer formation. Cianfarani et al., (2006) conducted research to show that growth factors in placenta, including placenta growth factor, are effective in the treatment of these wounds. Fibronectin Type III like peptide, an important compound in wound healing, can also be isolated from human placental extract (Chakraborty et al., 2005). Berger and Bergerman (1958) conducted early trials around the use of placenta in wound healing.
Burns
A small amount of work has been done around the treatment of burns with placental material. Smirnov et al., (1994) treated third degree burns by applying a suspension prepared from human placenta and foetal skin and it proved to be as effective as plastic surgery. This approach could be particularly helpful when supplies of donor skin are limited, in the therapy of patients with polyvalent allergy, elderly patients with severe somatic pathology hampering autodermaplasty (purification of infection), in the therapy of children, and in cases of untreatable infected burns.
Commercial Potential
The primary commercial opportunities for placental derived produces are the cosmetics (including cosmeceuticals) and nutraceutical markets. Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products that are claimed to have specific benefits such as anti-ageing.
Economic Potential
We will assume that a 2 kg bovine placenta yields approximately 200 g of dried powder (10%) per animal. Current pricing structures have been identified for placenta derived products. Australian abattoirs such as Norvic in Victoria will collect and pack ovine placenta for AUD$5 per kg on demand.
Placental tissues and their associated fluids represent new commercial opportunities for the Australian meat industry. Markets lie in Chinese medicine, wound healing, neonatal maturation, stem-cell culture and cosmeceutical areas. The Chinese medicine industry is well established in China but is hampered by lack of product quality and certification. In China, there is a preference for imported products particularly in the hospital sector. Currently it is not. Ovine placenta and amniotic fluid are successfully collected and processed on a small scale and interest is increasing both nationally and globally. There are some cultural barriers to the use of bovine products in some countries and this problem could be overcome by using ovine material in these markets. India and China are examples of countries where the consumer preference is for ovine derived products. There are no barriers to using bovine material in the US and Australian markets, with Australian based exports of raw material or partially processed material permissible from AQIS accredited plants.
EDITED BY DR DEVASHISH PANDA,IVRI
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