Veterinary Abbreviations & Acronyms

AAAP

1. American Association of Avian Pathologists; 2.  Asian-Australasian Association of Animal Production Societies

AABP

American Association of Bovine Practitioners

AAEP

American Association of Equine Practitioners

AAHA

American Animal Hospital Association

AAFCO

American Association of Feed Control Officials

AASP

American Association of Swine Practitioners

AASRP

American Association of Small Ruminant Practitioners

ab, Ab

Antibody

ABPE

Acute bovine pulmonary emphysema and edema

ABVP

American Board of Veterinary Practitioners

ac

[Latin] Ante cibum / cibos, before meals

ACD

Acid-citrate-dextrose

ACE

Angiotensin-converting enzyme

ACL

Anterior cruciate ligament

ACT

1. American College of Theriogenologists; 2.  Activated coagulation time

ACTH

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

AD

Aleutian Disease

ADF

Acid detergent fiber

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone, vasopressin

ADP

Adenosine diphosphate

ad lib

[Latin] Ad libitum, as much as desired

AEMV

American Exotic Mammal Veterinarians

AFIP

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

ag, Ag

1. Antigen; 2.  Antigenemia

AGID

Agar gel immunodiffusion

AHS

African horse sickness

AHT

Animal health technician

AHV-1

Alcelaphine herpesvirus 1

AI

Artificial insemination

AIDS

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

AIHA

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia

AIPE

Asphyxia-induced pulmonary edema

ALD

Approximate lethal dose

ALP

Alkaline phosphatase

ALT

Alanine aminotransferase / alanine transaminase (see also GPT, SGPT)

AMB

Amphotericin B

ANA

Antinuclear antibodies

ANF

Atrial natriuretic factor

ant.

Anterior

AP

Anterior-posterior

APHIS

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (of USDA)

APPO

Assistance Program for Pet Owners

APR

Acute phase response

APTT

Activated partial thromboplastin time

APUD

Amine precursor uptake decarboxylase

ARD

Antibiotic-responsive diarrhea

ARD

Acute renal disease

ARP

American Registry of Pathology

ARPAS

American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists

ASF

African swine fever

ASPCA

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

AST

Aspartate transaminase (aspartate aminotransferase) / aspartic acid trasaminase (aspartic acid aminotransferase) (see also GOT, SGOT)

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate

AUC

Area under the curve

AV

1. Atriventricular; 2.  Arteriovenous; 3.  Abomasal volvulus (see also RDA, RTA)

av

Average

AVECCT

Academy of Veterinary Emergency & Critical Care Technicians

AVMA

American Veterinary Medical Association

AZT

Azidothymidine (now called Zidovudine, ZDN), 3′-Azido-3′-deoxythymidine

-B-

BAER

Brain stem auditory evoked responses

BAL

1. previously used name for Dimercaprol (1,2-Dimercapto-3-propanol); 2.  bronchoalveolar lavage

BCG

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin

BD

Border disease

BER

Basal energy requirement

BFR

Benign foot rot

b.i.d.

[Latin] Bis in die, twice a day

BIV

Bovine immunodeficiency-like virus

BHC

Benzene hexachloride

BHV

Bovine herpesvirus

BLV

Bovine leukemia virus

BMD

Bone mineral density

bp, BP

Blood pressure

bpm

Beats per minute

BPDME

Bovine progressive degenerative myeloencephalopathy

BRD

Bovine respiratory disease

BRS

Brown recluse spider

BRSV

Bovine respiratory syncytial virus

BRT

Brucella milk ring test

BSE

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

BSP

Bromsulfophthalein

BT

Bluetongue (virus)

BUN

Blood urea nitrogen

BVD(V)

Bovine viral diarrhea (virus)

BW

Body weight

Bx

Biopsy

-C-

C-1, C-2, C-3, …, C-7

the cervical vertebrae

CA

Contagious agalactia

CAE(V)

Caprine arthritis and encephalitis (virus)

cAMP

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

CAR

Congenital articular rigidity

CAT scan

Computerized axial tomography

CAV

Canine adenovirus

CAV

Chick anemia virus

CBC

Complete blood count

CBF

Cerebral blood flow

CCHF

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever

ccms

Clean catch, midstream

CCV

Canine coronavirus

CDC

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CDV

Canine distemper virus

CEAH

Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health

CEM

Contagious equine metritis

CF

1. Chronicity factor; 2.  Complement fixation (test)

CFU

Colony forming units

CHF

Congestive heart failure

CHV

Canine herpesvirus

CL

Corpus luteum

CLA

Caseous lymphadenitis

CM

Castrated male

CMT

California mastitis test

CN1

Cranial nerve 1, olfactory nerve

CN2

Optic nerve

CN3

Occulomotor nerve

CN4

Trochlear nerve

CN5

Trigeminal nerve

CN6

Abducens nerve

CN7

Facial nerve

CN8

Vestibulocochlear nerve

CN9

Glossopharyngeal nerve

CN10

Vagus nerve

CN11

Accessory nerve

CN12

Hypoglossal nerve

CNS

Central nervous system

COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (heaves)

CP

conscious proprioception

CPD

Citrate-phosphate-dextrose

CPD-A

Citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine

CPK

Creatinine phosphokinase

CPR

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CPRA

Central progressive retinal atrophy

CPV

Canine parvovirus

CRD

Chronic respiratory disease

CRD

Chronic renal disease

CRG

Controlled-release glasses

crit

Hematocrit

CRTZ

Chemoreceptor trigger zone

CRWAD

Conference of Research Workers in Animal Disease

CSF

Cerebrospinal fluid

CSM

Cottonseed meal

CT

1. Calcitonin, thyrocalcitonin; 2.  computerized tomography

CTC

Chlortetracycline

CVP

Central venous pressure

CVT

Certified Veterinary Technician

-D-

DEA

Drug Enforcement Administration

DEC

Diethylcarbamazine (N,N-diethyl-4-methyl-1-piperazinecarboxamide)

DES

Diethylstilbestrol

DFA

Diffuse fibrosing alveolitis

DHIA

Dairy Herd Improvement Association

DHIR

Dairy Herd Improvement Registry

DHLP-P

Distemper, Hepatitis, Leptospirosis, Parainfluenza, Parvovirus (vaccine)

DHV

Duck hepatitis virus

DI

Diabetes insipidus

DIC

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

DIP

Distal interphalangeal joint [in horses]

DJD

Degenerative joint disease

DLE

Discoid lupus erythematosus

DM

1. Deciduous molar(s); 2.  Diabetes mellitus; 3.  diastolic murmur; 4.   dry mass; 5.  dry matter; et alia

DMNA

Dimethylnitrosamine

DMOAD, DMOADs

Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug(s)

DMSO

Dimethyl sulfoxide

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

DOCA

Desoxycorticosterone acetate

DOCP

Desoxycorticosterone pivalate

DSS

Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate

DTM

Dermatophyte Test Medium

DV

Dorsal-ventral

DVM

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

Dx

Diagnosis

-E-

EBA

Epizootic bovine abortion

EBV

Epstein-Barr virus

ECF

Extracellular fluid

ECG, EKG

Electrocardiogram

eCG

Equine chorionic gonadotropin

1. coli

Escherichia coli

ECP

Estradiol cypionate

ED

Elbow dysplasia [e.g. in dogs]

EDDI

Ethylenediamine dihydroiodide

EDP

Edema disease principle

EDS

Egg drop syndrome

EE

Equine encephalomyelitis

EEE

Eastern equine encephalomyelitis

EEG

Electroencephalogram

EF

Ejection fraction

EFA

Essential fatty acids

EHD

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease

EHV

Equine herpesvirus

EKG  see ECG

EIA

1. Enzyme immunoassays; 2.  equine infectious anemia

EIAV

Equine infectious anemia virus (a lentivirus)

EIPH

Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage

ELF

Enzyme-labeled fluorescence

ELISA

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EM

Electron microscopy

EMC

Encephalomyocarditis

EMG

Electromyography

EP

Enzootic pneumonia

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

EPG

Eggs per gram (of feces)

EPI

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

EPM

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis

EPO

Erythropoietin

-F-

FA

1. Fatty acid(s); 2.  Flourescent antibody

FAD

Flea allergy dermatitis

FARAD

Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank

FCP

Fragmentation of the coronoid process, fragmented coronoid process

FCV

Feline calicivirus

FDA

Food and Drug Administration

FDP

Fibrin degradation products

FeBb

Feline Bordetella bronchiseptica

FECV

Feline enteric coronavirus

FeLLC

Feline lymphosarcoma-leukemia complex

FeLV

Feline leukemia virus

FFA

Free fatty acids

FHD

Feline heartworm disease

FHV

1. Feline herpesvirus; 2.  Flock House virus

FIA

Feline infectious anemia

FIP

Feline infectious peritonitis

FIV

Feline immunodeficiency virus

fLUTD

Feline lower urinary tract disease

FMD

Foot-and-mouth disease

FMDV

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (Aphthovirus)

FNA

Fine-needle aspiration

FOCMA

Feline oncornavirus-associated cell membrane antigen

FORL

Feline odontoclastic resorptive lesion(s)

FRV

1. Feline rhinotracheitis virus; 2.  feline rotavirus(es)

FSH

Follicle-stimulating hormone

FSV

Feline sarcoma virus

FUD

Fever of undetremined origin

FUS

Feline urological syndrome

fx

Fracture

FVRCP

Feline viral rhinotracheitis, calicivirus, panleukopenia [vaccine]

-G-

GABA

Gamma-aminobutyric acid

GALT

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue

GDU

Gastroduodenal ulceration

GDV

Gastric dilitation-volvulus

GES

Group E streptococcus

GFR

Glomerular filtration rate

GH

Growth hormone

GHRH

Growth hormone-releasing hormone

GI

Gastrointestinal

GME

Granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis

Gn-RH

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

GOT

Glutamic-oxaloacetic (glutamate-oxaloacetate) transaminase / aspartate aminotransferase (see also AST, SGOT)

GPT

Glutamate-pyruvate (glutamic-pyruvic) transaminase / alanine aminotransferase (see also ALT, SGPT)

GRAS

Generally regarded as safe

GVH

Goose viral hepatitis

G6PD

Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase

-H-

H&E

Hematoxylin and eosin (stain)

HA

1. Hemagglutinin; 2.  hemagglutination; 3.  Hypertensive angiopathy

HACCP

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points

Hb, Hgb

Hemoglobin

HBC

Hit by car

HCG

Human chorionic gonadotropin

HCH

Halogenated cyclic hydrocarbons

Hct

Hematocrit

HD

Hepatosis dietetica

HD

Hip dysplasia

HEV

Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus

Hgb  see Hb

HGE

Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis

HHM

Humoral Hypercalcemia of malignancy

HI

Hemagglutination-inhibition

HMP

Hexose monophosphate shunt

HOD

Hypertrophic osteodystrophy

HPA

Hypophyseal-pituitary axis

HPF

High-power field

Hpg

Haemophilus paragallinarum

HS

Hemorrhagic septicemia

HSL

Hypertonic saline

HUS

Hemolytic uremic syndrome

hypp

Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis

-I-

IAADP

International Association of Assistance Dog Partners

IACUC

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

IBD

1. Infectious bursal disease; 2.  inflammatory bowel disease

IBH

Inclusion body hepatitis

IBR

1. Inclusion body rhinitis; 2.  infectious bovine rhinotracheitis

IC

1. Infectious coryza; 2.  intracardiac

ICF

Intracellular fluid

ICH

Infectious canine hepatitis

ID

Intradermal

IDDM

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

IDST

Intradermal skin testing

IFA

Indirect fluorescent antibody

IFN

Interferon

Ig

Immunoglobulin

IGR

Insect growth regulators

IHA

Indirect hemagglutination

iLUTD

Idiopathic lower urinary tract disease

IM

Intramuscular

IN

Intranasal

inf.

1. Infection; 2.  inferior

INH

Infectious necrotic hepatitis

IP

Intraperitoneal

IPN

Infectious pancreatic necrosis

IPV

Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis

isom(s) or ISCOM(s)

Immunostimulating complex(es)

IV

Intravenous

IVD

Intervertebral disc

IVP

Intravenous pyelogram, intravenous pyelography

IVSA

International Veterinary Students’ Association

-J-

JAAHA

Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association

JAVMA

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

-K-

KBH

Kicked by horse

KCS

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca

KPMG L.L.P.

Name of the consulting firm which produced the report “The Current and Future Market for Veterinarians and Veterinary Medical Services in the United States”, commonly referred to as the KPMG study or KPMG report. (See King. L. J. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”: a perspective on the KPMG study. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 217(7):996-998.)

KTZ

Keratonazole

kVp

Kilovolt peak

-L-

LA

Large animal

LCM

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis

LD

Lethal dose

LDA

Left displacement of abomasum

LE

Lupus erythematosus

LH

Luteinizing hormone

LMN

Lower motor neurons

LPE

Lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis

LPF

Low-power field(s)

LPS

Lipopolysaccharide

LRS

Lactated Ringer’s solution

LVT

Licensed veterinary technician

-M-

mA

Milliamperes

MAC

Minimal antibiotic concentration

MALT

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

MAOI

Monoamine oxidase inhibitor(s)

MAP

Mouse antibody production

MBC

Minimal bactericidal concentration

MCF

Malignant catarrhal fever

MCH

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin

MCHC

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

MCP

Metacarpophalangeal joint [in horses]

MCT

1. Market cattle testing; 2.  Mast cell tumor(s)

MCV

1. Mean cell volume; 2.  Mean corpuscular volume

ME

Metabolizable energy

MEC

Minimal effective plasma concentration

MED

Median effective dose (ED ₅₀)

MG

Monoglycerides

MH

Malignant hyperthermia

MHA

Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia

MHD

Mulberry heart disease

MHV

Mouse hepatitis virus

Mhz

Megahertz

MIC

Minimal inhibitory concentration

MI

3-methylindole

MLV

Modified live virus

MMA

Mastitis-metritis-agalactia complex

MNTD

Maximum nontoxic dose

MOET

Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer

mOsm

Milliosmol(s)

MRCVS

Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging

mRNA

Messenger ribonucleic acid

MSD

Marble spleen disease

MSH

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone

MTC

Maximum tolerated plasma concentration

MTD

Median toxic dose (TD ₅₀)

MTD

Maximum tolerated dose

-N-

NADH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

NADPH

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

NAF

No abnormal findings

NAHMS

National Animal Health Monitoring Systems (of USDA)

NASPHV

National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians

NAVLE

North American Veterinary Licensing Examination

NAVTA

North American Veterinary Technician Association

NBEC

National Board Examination Committee for Veterinary Medicine

NCPPSP

National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy

NCV

Nerve conduction velocities

ND

Newcastle disease

NDF

Neutral detergent fiber

NECL

Nonepitheliotropic cutaneous lymphosarcomas

NFM

Northern fowl mite

NMB

New Methylene Blue

NMD

Nutritional muscular dystrophy

NMS

Neonatal maladjustment syndrome

NPN

Nonprotein nitrogen

NPO

[Latin] Nil per os, nothing by mouth

nRBC

Nucleated red blood cells

NRC

National Research Council

NSAID, NSAIDs

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

-O-

OA

Osteoarthritis, degenerative joint disease

OCD

Osteochondritis dissecans

O.D.

[Latin] Oculus dexter, right eye

ODE

Old-dog encephalitis

OFA

Orthopedic Foundation for Animals

OID

Ovine interdigital dermatitis

OP

Organophosphates

OR

Operating room

os, ossa [Latin]

Bone

O.S.

[Latin] Oculus sinister, left eye

-P-

P-A

Posterior-anterior

PABA

Para-aminobenzoic acid

PAD

Pododermatitis aseptica diffusa

PAF

Platelet activating factor

PBB

Polybrominated biphenyls

PBFD

Psittacine beak and feather disease

pc

[Latin] Post cibum / cibos, after meals

PCB

Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCV

Packed cell volume

PDA

Patent ductus arteriosus

PDE

Phosphodiesterases

PE

Physical examination

PED

Porcine epidemic diarrhea

PEDV

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus

PEM

Polioencephalomalacia

PF

Platelet Factor

PG, PGs

1. Prostaglandin; 2.  proteoglycan(s)

PHS

Pulmonary hypertension syndrome

PI-3

Parainfluenza-3 virus

PIE syndrome

Pulmonary infiltration with eosinophilia

PKD

Proliferative kidney disease

PLH

Pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia

Plt

Platelet(s)

PMN

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes

PMSG

Pregnant mare serum gonadotropin

PNS

Peripheral nervous system

PNU

Protein nitrogen units

PO

[Latin] Per os, orally

post.

Posterior

POVMR

Problem-oriented veterinary medical record

PPLO

Pleuropneumonia-like organism

PPN

Partial parenteral nutrition

PPR

Peste des petits ruminants

pr

Per rectum

PRA

Progressive retinal atrophy

PRDC

Porcine respiratory disease complex

PRN, p.r.n.

[Latin] Pro re nata, as occasion arises (as needed)

PRRS

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome

PRV

Pseudorabies virus

PSE

Pale soft exudative pork

PSGAG

Polysulfated glycosaminoglycan

PSS

1. Physiologic saline solution; 2.  porcine stress syndrome

PT

Prothrombin time

PTH

Parathormone, parathyroid hormone

PTHrP

PTH-related proteins

PTS

Put to sleep

pulv

Pulverized, powder

Px

Physical examination

-Q-

q., qq.

[Latin] Quaque, every, each (e.g. q.d. quaque die, every day; qh quaque hora, every hour; q4h every four hours; etc.)

q.i.d.

[Latin] Quater in die, four times daily

ql

[Latin] Quantum libet, as much as desired

QNS

Quantity not sufficient

qod

every other day (see q.)

QOL

Quality of life

qs

[Latin] Quantum sufficiat, as much as is sufficient

qv

[Latin] Quantum vis, as much as you please

-R-

R, r

Roentgen [international unit of measurement of x- or g-rays]

RA

Rheumatoid arthritis

RANA

Registered Animal Nursing Auxiliary

RAST

Radioallergosorbent test

RBC

Red blood cells

RDA

Right displacement of the abomasum (see also AV 3.)

REM

Rapid eye movement

RER

Resting energing requirement

RES

Reticuloendothelial system

REV

Reticuloendotheliosis virus

RMSF

Rocky Mountain spotted fever

RNA

Ribonucleic acid

RSAT

Rapid slide agglutination test

RTA

Right torsion of the abomasum (see also AV 3.)

RTF

Resistance transfer factor

RV

Rabies vaccine

RVF

1. Rift Valley fever; 2.  Right ventricular failure

RVVT

Russell’s viper venom time

R _x

[Latin] recipe, take, receive (used to indicate a prescription or treatment)

-S-

SA

1. Sinoatrial; 2.  Small animal

SAIDS

Simian acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

SAMS

Sow abortion and mortality syndrome

SAP

Serum alkaline phosphatase

SARA

Subacute ruminal acidosis

SBE

Sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis

SC

Subcutaneous(ly)

SCUD

Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease

SDA

Sialodacryoadenitis

SDH

Sorbitol dehydrogenase

SDF

Synchronous diaphragmatic flutter, “thumps”

SF

Spayed female

SFT

Society for Theriogenology

SG

Specific gravity

SGOT

Serum glutamic-oxaloacetic (glutamate-oxaloacetate) transaminase / aspartate aminotransferase (see also AST, GOT)

sGPT, SGPT

Serum glutamate-pyruvate (glutamic-pyruvic) transaminase / alanine aminotransferase (see also ALT, GPT)

SHS

Swollen head syndrome

SI

1. Safety index; 2.  superior-inferior

SIBO

Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

SIRS

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome

SIV

1. Simian immunodeficiency virus; 2.  swine influenza virus

SLE

Systemic lupus erythematosus

SLS

Streptococcal lymphadenitis

SMSV

San Miguel sea lion virus

SMZ

Sulfamethazine

SPD

Salmon poisoning disease

SPF

Specific pathogen free

sp / spp

Species (singular) / species (plural)

SSRI, SSRIs

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor(s)

subcut.

Subcutaneous(ly) (see also Sub-Q)

Sub-Q

Subcutaneous(ly) (see also subcut.)

sup.

Superior

SVD

Swine vesicular disease

sx

Surgery

-T-

TAT

Tetanus antitoxin

TB

Tuberculosis

TBF

Tick-borne fever

TCP

Tropical canine pancytopenia

TDN

Total digestable nutrients

TEME

Thromboembolic meningoencephalitis

TGC

Tender gentle care

TGE

Transmissible gastroenteritis

t.i.d.

[Latin] Ter in die, three times a day

TLC

Tender loving care

TLI

Trypsin-like immunoreactivity

TME

Transmissible mink encephalopathy

TMJ

Temporomandibular joint

TMS

Trace mineral salt

TNF

Tumor necrosis factor

TNTC

Too numerous to count

TPN

Total parenteral nutrition

TOX, TOXO, Toxo

1. Toxoplasma; 2.  Toxoplasmosis

TRH

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

TRTVs

Turkey rhinotracheitis viruses

TSH

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyrotropin

TT

1. Tetanus toxoid; 2.  thrombin time

TTW

Transtracheal washes or washing

T ₃

Triiodothyronine

T ₄

Thyroxine

-U-

UAP

Ununited anconeal process

UD

Ulcerative dermatosis

UIP

Undegraded intake protein

UMCP

Ununited medial coronoid process

UMHE

Ununited medial humeral epicondyle

UMN

Upper motor neurons

USP

United States Pharmacopeia

UTI

Urinary tract infection

-V-

VD

Ventral-dorsal

VEE

Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis

VEN,PEN

Viral erythrocytic necrosis

VES(V)

Vesicular exanthema of swine (virus)

VFA

Volatile fatty acids

VFD

Veterinary feed directive

VFR

Virulent foot rot

VHD

Viral hemorrhagic disease

VMD

Veterinary medical doctor

VN

Virus neutralization

VS

Vesicular stomatitis

VT

Veterinary technician

VVND

Viscerotropic velogenic Newcastle disease

VWD

Vomiting and wasting disease

VWF

Von Willebrand’s factor

-W-

WB

Western blot [test]

WBC

White blood cells

WEE

Western equine encephalomyelitis

WHO

World Health Organization

WMD

White muscle disease

WMT

Wisconsin mastitis test

WVA

World Veterinary Association

WVPA

World Veterinary Poultry Association

Compiled  & Shared by- Team, LITD (Livestock Institute of Training & Development)

Image-Courtesy-Google

Reference-On Request.