VET’S & PARAVETS’S KEY GUIDE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS

FLUID THERAPY

 Indications of Fluid Therapy

1. Shock
2. Diarrhea-sever or prolonged
3. Anorexia as a result of pyrexia, digestive disorders and post operative condition
4. Rumen acidosis; Engorgement of grain leads to ketosis, dehydration
5. Vomition – severe or prolonged
6. Burns
7. Endocrine disorders
8. Alkalosis
9. Renal insufficiency
10. Abomasal displacement and torsion

The percentage of loss of fluid can be assessed by following rule of thumb:

4-6 % dehydration               No sign of dehydration

6-8 % dehydration          Moderate dehydration with sunken eyes, 2-4 second skin fold test

8-12 % dehydration               Sever dehydration skin fold test 20-45 seconds

 

Route of Administration

The selection of the route of route for fluid therapy will depends on certain considerations:

1. Kind of disease and its severity
2. Extent of dehydration
3. Condition of the patient
4. Organic function of the patient
5. Type of electrolyte imbalance
6. Time and equipment available

 

Solutions Commonly Used:

• Dextrose solution: are available in 5%, 5%, 10% and 25% concentration., but 5% solution is isotonic an used in routine practice.

Indications:

• To avoid dehydration, depletion of liver glucose, ketosis, excess tissue catabolism
• In renal, hepatic, cardiac and gastrointestinal diseases
• To accelerate sodium excretion
• To increase intracranial pressure only hypertonic solution be

Contraindications:

• Never give more than 5% dextrose solution in
• The higher percentage will increase ketosis rather than
• Never give in case of milk fever

Do not give following blood transfusion

Sodium Chloride (0.9% solution)

Indications:

• Excessive salivation called “Pantar” and digestive disturbances
• Vomition
• Pyloric obstruction
• Abomasal disorders
• Heat stroke
• Alkalosis due to fluid loss

Contraindications:

• Never give in ascitis and edema

Ringer’s Solution

Indications:

• Dehydration
• Slight alkalosis or hypochloremia

Contraindications:

• Milk fever

Lactated Ringer’s Solution

Indications:

• Slight acidosis
• Dehydration
• Burn, infection and peritoneal disorders
• To counteract the excess use of acidifying

Contraindications:

• Liver dysfunction
• Congestive heart failure
• Anorexia due to shock
• Severe metabolic alkalosis
• Rumen acidosis

Sodium lactate Solution:

Indications:

• To induce quick alkalinity of urine, prior giving sulpha drugs
• To avoid renal damage and hemoglobinuria after blood transfusion
• In case of myohemoglobinuria in horses
• Metabolic acidosis not of anoxic origin
• At the dose rate of 25 ml/kg body weight Intravenously

Contraindications:

• Vomition
• Hepatic disorders
• Respiratory alkalosis
• Lactic acidosis

Acid Sodium Phosphate Solution

Indications:

• Use in post parturient hemoglobinuria especially in buffaloes at dose rate of 60 gram acid sodium phosphate in 800 ml distilled water given intravenously very The same dose given SC 12 hours interval for 3 times.

GLOSSARY

Nutrition:

It is study of quality and quantity of nutrients for particular stage of animal for particular goal. Goal is to optimize productivity.

Nutrients:

The chemical substance found in feed that can be used and are necessary for maintenance, production and health of the animal.

Main classes of nutrients are: Water, Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat, Minerals and Vitamins.

Forages:

Vegetative portion of plant fed to the animal in fresh, dried or ensiled state. Although most forages are roughages.

Conversely many forages such as corncobs, straws are not forages.

Roughages:

These are feeding stuffs which are bulky and contain more than 18% crude fiber and less conc. of energy yielding nutrients. These as high in fiber content and low in energy (1-1.4 mcal/kg of DM). Example: Straws, green fodder, hay, silage

Concentrate:

These are feed stuffs which contain less than 18% crude fiber and less bulky and rich in energy yielding nutrients. These are low in fiber contents and high in energy (1.5-2.2 Mcal/kg of DM). Example: Cereal grains, oil seeds.

Health:

Health is a state of an individual living in complete harmony with his environment/ surroundings.

Disease:

It is a condition in which an individual shows an anatomical, chemical or physiological deviation from the normal.

Illness:

Illness is the reaction of an individual to disease in the form of illness.

Hemostasis:

It is the mechanism by which body keeps equilibrium between health and disease.

Pathology:

It is the study of the anatomical, chemical and physiological alteration from the normal as a result of disease in animals.

Oncology:

It is the study of cancer/tumor/neoplasms.

Etiology:

It is the study of causation of disease.

Diagnosis:

It is an art of precisely knowing the cause of a particular disease

Symptoms:

Any subjective evidence of disease of animal characterized by an indication of altered bodily or mental state as told by owner (complaints of the patients).

Signs:

These are indication of the existence of something, any objective evidence of disease, perceptible to veterinarian.

Syndrome:

A combination of symptoms caused by altered physiological process involve a no. of causative agents.

Lesion:

It is a pathological alteration in structure/ function that can be detectable.

Pathogenesis:

It is the progressive development of a disease process. It starts with the entry of causal agent in body and ends either with the recovery or death.

Incubation period:

It is the time that elapses between the action of a cause and manifestation of disease.

Course of disease:

It is the duration for which the disease process remains till fate either in the form of recovery or death of animal.

Prognosis:

It is an estimate by a clinician of probable severity or outcome of disease.

Morbidity rate:

It is the percentage/proportion of affected animals out of the total population in a particular disease outbreak.

Mortality rate:

It is the percentage/proportion of animals out of total population, died due to disease in a particular disease outbreak.

Case fatality rate:

It is the percentage/proportion of animals died among the affected animals.

Biospsy:

It is the examination of tissue received from the living animals.

Infection:

It is the invasion of the tissues of the body by pathogenic organisms resulting in the development of a disease.

Infestation:

It is the superficial attack of any parasite/organism on the surface of the body.

Pathogenicity:

It is the capability of an organism for producing a disease.

Virulence:

Virulence is the degree of invasiveness of pathogenic organism.

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Mastitis

Causative agents: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus aglactiae — These are most prevalent bacteria, Others are: Corynebacterium bovis, Mycoplasma bovis

Diagnostic Tests:

Bulk tank somatic cell count (at herd level), California mastitis test (distinguish into peracute, acute, subacute and subclinical mastitis); it is negative when SCC is < 200,000 and positive when SCC > 200,000

Treatment:

Sulfonamide or ampicillin (parentral)

Cefoperazone, Penicillin G and neomycin in combination [intra-mammary]

Strangles

Syn: Equine distemper

It is highly contagious disease, mostly affect horses of young age

Causative agent: Streptococus equi

Signs: Acute onset of fever, anorexia, depression, submandibular and pharyngeal lymphadenopathy with abscessation and upon rupture, there is copious purulent discharge (it may be unilateral or bilateral)

Treatment:

Penicillin, Local treatment of abscess

Anthrax

Syn: Spleenic fever

Causative agent: Bacillus anthracis

Signs: Fever, septicemia, edema at throat abdomen and flank region, Exudation of tarry blood from the body orifices, failure of body to clot, absence of rigor mortis

Rx:

Penicillin @ 20,000 IU per kg bwt twice daily or Streptomycin @ 8-10 g/day or Oxytetracycline @ 5 mg/kg bwt per day IM

 

Tetanus

Causative agent: Clostridium tetani; releases exotoxins which are: i) Tetanospasmin ii) Tetanolysin

Signs: Condition is associated with the history of wound. Other signs are third eyelid prolapse, body muscle stiffness, lock jaw

Rx:

Penicillin (in larger doses), Chlorpromazine (muscle relaxant) @ 1 mg/kg IM, Hydration status maintained by passing stomach tube and pouring water directly into the stomach, to relieve the animal from urination, pass urine catheter.

Black Leg

Causative agent: Clostridium chauvoei

Cattle of 6 month to 2 years age and rapidly growing with high plan of nutrition are most susceptible.

Rx:

High doses of penicillin and surgical debridement

Bacillary Haemoglobinuria

Causative agent: Clostrodium hemolyticum; releases neurotoxins and hemolytic betatoxin

Signs: Toxemia, Fever, Hemoglobinuria

Rx: Penicillin, Tetracycline

 

Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Syn: Barbone disease,

Causative agent: Pasteurella multocida ; normal inhabitant of respiratory tract Transmission: direct contact by droplets

Signs: High temperature (106-107 F), Profused salivation, Warm painful swelling around throat and throat, Dyspnoea

Rx: Sulfonamide

Brucellosis

Syn: Bang’s disease (As causative agent was discovered by Bang (A scientist)

Zoonosis: Man suffered from undulant fever (also called malta fever , severe headache and pain in back.

Causative agent: Brucella abortus, B. mellitensis, B. suis

Intracellular bacteria which can survive and multiply within the cells of macrophage system.

Signs: It causes abortion after 5^th month of pregnancy

Rx: No specific treatment

Vaccination: Single 5 ml dose of B.abortus strain 19 is used for vaccination given SC at from 2 to 6 month of age.

Tuberculosis

Causative agent: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in human), Mycobacterium bovis (in bovine)

Signs: Progressive emaciation, Fluctuation in temperature, Pharyngeal obstruction etc.

Test: Tuberculin test (Single intradermal test)

Rx: Isoniazid @ 20mg/kg bwt orally Test and slaughter policy for eradication

Vaccination: Bacillus calmette guerine (BCG)

Paratuberculosis

Syn: Johne’s disease

Causative agent: Mycobacterium paratuberculosis

Signs: Progressive emaciation over several weeks, Chronic intractable diarrhea which does not respond to any treatment, Corrugation of intestinal wall.

A distinguish characteristic of Johne’s disease is that infection occurs in animal at an early age, usually under 30 days of age and clinical disease does not occur until 3-5 years of age.

Rx: No effective treatment, Isoniazid @ 20mg/kg up to 100 days. Streptomycin is also effective.

Tests: (i) Johnin Intradermal Test      (ii) Johnin Intravenous Test

Actinomycosis

Syn: Lumpy Jaw

Causative agent: Actinomyces bovis; normal inhabitant of the bovine mouth.

Signs: Initially pointless hard immovable swelling onmandible or maxilla usually at the level of central molar teeth. Eventually discharge small amounts of pus through one or more openings in skin.

Rx: Surgical debridement, Iodides and/or Sulfonamide orally or parenterally

Actinobacillosis

Syn: Wooden tongue

Causative agent: Actinobicillus lignieresii; normal inhabitant of alimentary tract.

Signs: Difficulty in swelling, nodules in cattle and of lips in sheep. Big head

Rx: Sodium iodide 1 g/12 kg can be given IV as 10% solution in one does both for cattle and sheep. At least one or two further treatments are at 10-14 days intervals are required for bony lesions. Note: Abortion occasionally occurs following the treatment of heavily pregnant cows with sodium iodide.

 

Infectious Foot Rot (in Sheep)

Causative agent: Fusiformus necrophorum Serious outbreaks in wet sand warm weather.

Signs: Interdigital dermatitis, underrunning of horn, medial aspect of claw, strong smell of necrotic horn, very severe lameness, walk on knees.

Rx: Topical treatment. Zinc sulfate solution 10% + sodium lauryl sulfate 2%. Sheep stood for one hour in a footbath. Thirsty sheep may drink the footbath solution and die due to zinc toxicity. Antibiotic treatment; Procaine penicillin single IM of 70,000 IU/kg or 70 mg/kg.

Dihydrostreptomycin single IM or Long acting Oxytetracycline single IM dose @ 20mg/kg.

 

Postparturient Hemoglobinuria

It is due to dietary phosphorus deficiency.

Signs: Hemoglobinuria, inappetance, reduced milk production, No fever.

Rx: IV administration of 60 gm of Sodium acid phosphate in 300 ml distilled water and similar dose SC. Further SC injections at 12 hourly intervals on three occasions and similar daily doses by mouth

Babesiosis

Syn: Texas fever, Redwater fever, Cattle tick fever Causative agent: Babesia spp. [B.bigemina, B. equi] Transmit by blood sucking ticks of Boophilus spp.

Signs: Anemia, Hemoglobinuria, Jaundice, Fever, Heavy case fatality rate

Rx: Imidocarb (Imizole) @ 2mg/kg bwt, Diminazine aceturate is affective in sheep @ 12 mg/kg bwt as a single dose.

 

Fusobacterium necrophorum is normal inhabitant of oral cavity and causes inflammation and necrosis, injury of the mucosa of oral cavity, pharynx and larynx

Rx: Debridement of ulcer, Application of solution of tincture of iodine, Oral administration of Sulfamethazine @ 150 mg/kg bwt for 3-5 days.

 

Glanders

Causative agent: Pseudomonas mallei

Signs: Acute/ Chronic. Penumonia, Nodular ulcers in respiratory tract and on the skin. The disease is highly fatal, nasal discharge.

Rx: Sulfadiazine and Sulfadimidine for 20 days

Tests: Mallein Test [ Mallein reagent 0.1 ml is injected in lower aye lid and observed after 48 hrs. Swelling of eyelid confirms the +ve case].

 

Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP)

A disease of Caprine (Goat), it is not transmissible to cattle and sheep. Causative agent: Mycoplasma capriculum

Signs: Cough, Dyspnoea, Lagging, Lying down a lot, Fever 105-106 F and in terminated stages, there is mouth breathing tongue protrusion and frothy salivation.

Rx: Tylosin tartrate @ 10mg/kg bwt or Oxatetracycline @ 15mg/kg bwt per day

 

RICKETTSIAL DISEASES

Tick Borne Fever

Causative agent: Ehrlichia phagoctophilia

Signs: Fever, Depression, Lethargy, Polypnoea, & Fall in milk production in cattle, Abortion Rx: Oxytetracycline @ 10mg/kg bwt IV

Q- Fever

Causative agent: Coxiella burnetti

Signs: Clinically inapparent and presents mainly as abortion in sheep Rx: Perhaps Oxytetracycline is effective

Brucellosis

Predilaction sites are gravid uterus, mammary lymph node, mammary glands and testes.

Signs: Swelling of mammary lymph nodes, Abortion, Mastitis, Orchitis

Tests: Rose Bengal Test, Milk Ring Test

VIRAL DISEASES

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

Syn: Apthous fever, Contagious aptha

FMD is an acute febrile highly contagious disease of cloven footed animals.

It is characterized by vesicular eruption on the epithelium of buccal cavity, tongue, nares, muzzle, feet, teats and udder.

Etiology:

FMD virus (Apthovirus) — > Family: Picornaviridae; strains found in Pakistan is Asia-1, O, A, C. Virus may remain viable the extent of one year in infected premises. Virus is resistant to common disinfectants. It is destroyed by sodium hydroxide (NaOH), formalin (1-2%) and sodium carbonate (4%). The virus can be preserved in glycerin phosphate buffer with a pH of 7.6. The virus is considered as smallest known virus of animal origin.

Transmission:

Through direct contact with infected animals from infective materials, food stuffs, feeding utensils, waterers etc. Spread through air ways like human influenza virus can also take place. The infection imposes a high spread during the cooler season when the air remains in damp condition. The virus initially settle in the cells of the dorsal surface of the soft palate or on the lateral wall of the pharynx following the entry.

Clinical Findings:

Morbidity: 100%, Incubation period : 2-8 days

Virus multiplies in blood stream — > viremia — > temp goes 104 to 106 F following peak temperature characteristic vesicles appear in the oral mucosa (vesicular stomatitis), interdigital space, udder etc. at this stage there is reduction in temperature, profuse salivation, and lameness. Drooling of slimy, ropy salivation and protrusion of the tongue are the futures in this stage; lesions appear in the junction of hoof. In severe case, there is shedding of the hooves. Suckling calf usually die as a result of myocarditis and myocardial degeneration.

Post-FMD complexes:

Penting — > due to lesions in pituitary gland and thermoregulation (endocrine disturbance), anemia, slower growth of hairs, mastitis, diabetes mellitus.

Treatment:

No specific treatment

Antiseptic mouth wash with potassium permagnate, sodium carbonate, boric acid and glycerin may be applied. Antiseptic may be given on foot lesions and mammary tissues.

Vaccination:

Commercially polyvalent vaccines is used which contain O,A, C, Asia-I strains.

Rinderpest

Syn: Cattle plaque

It is an acute or sub-acute febrile, highly contagious disease of even toed ungulates. It is pre- dominantly a fatal disease of cattle and buffalo characterized by necrotic stomatitis, gastroenteritis, dehydration and destruction of lymphocytes.

Etiology:

Rinderpest virus — > Genus Morbillivirus — > family Paramyxoviridae (Latine “morbi” denotes measles). Virus is spherical with diameter 100-300. virus can be destroyed by ultraviolet light and is heat sensitive.

Transmission:

Same like FMD. Feces is the main source of infection. Virus can remain alive upto 8 month in faces. Rinderpest virus got tremendous affinity to lymphoid tissue and epithelial tissues/cells of GIT and respiratory tract. Virus cause destruction of lymphocytes in tissues —

> leucopenia.

Clinical Findings:

                             Temperature 104 F, Photophobia, Muzzle is dry and there is profuse serious nasal and lacrimal discharge which later on muco-purulent. Necrotic lesion in mucous membrane of oral cavity. The chief sites of oral lesions comprise of inside of the lowerlip and adjacent gums, the cheeks near the commissures of lips; under the tip of the tongue and the back of the hard palate. There is diarrhea and abdominal pain.

Rx:

Rinderpest antiserum @ 1ml / kg IV. Antibiotic, symptomatic fluid and electrolyte therapy.

Peste Des Petitis Ruminants (PPR)

Syn: Pseudorinderpest, Goat plaque, PPR (plaque as per French phrase in small ruminants); KATA

It is an acute to subacute highly contagious disease of small ruminants having resemblance to rinderpest characterized by fever, diarrhea, nasal discharge.

The virus belong to Genus Morbillivirus and Family Paramyxoviridae same genus and family as that of Canine distemper, Rinderpest and Measle virus of human. The virus has tremendous affinity for epithelial cells of GIT and lymphoid tissue.

Transmission: Some like rinderpest.

On entry, the virus invades the retropharyngeal lymph nodes and mucosa.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)

Syn: Mucosal disease complex

BVD is a subacute, acute, or inapparent contagious disease having the manifestation of high rise of temperature and diarrhea; Pathological features of which are comprised of erosion of the mouth, esophagus, rumen, abdomen and intestine. Diarrhea and erosion of GIT.

Etiology:

BVD virus — > Genus: Pestivirus and Family: Togaviridae

Host susceptible: Principally noted in Cattle, less in buffalo, deer and wild ruminants. Transmission: occur during all seasons but more in rainy and winter season.

Animal of all ages are affected but more in 6 to 24 months of age.

Blue Tongue

It is an infectious non-contagious (arthropod-borne) viral disease of domestic and wild animals. This is predominately a disease of sheep but occasionally cattle, and goat are affected. The disease is characterized by high fever, catarrhal inflammation of buccal mucous membrane (stomatitis) and nasal mucous membrane (catarrhal rhinitis), cyanotic and bluish appearance of tongue; painful hoof; a pink line appear on coronet which is absent in FMD. Etiology:

Blue tongue virus — > Genus: Obrivirus — > Family: Reoviridae

Transmission:

Virus spread through blood sucking midges of the genus culicoides and mosquitoes also.

Ephemeral Fever

Syn: Three days sickness

It is an arthropod transmitted disease of cattle characterized by high temperature, stiffness, lameness, muscular tremor with spontaneous recovery.

Cow Pox

It is a contagious eruptive skin disease of cattl . It is mild cutaneous disease where the lesions are mostly confined to udder and teat. The disease is transmissible to human beings.

Etiology:

Cowpox virus — > Genus: Orthopoxvirus — > Family Poxviridae

Transmission: Direct contact, via hands of milkers and also by insects

Equine Influenza

It is an acute febrile highly infectious disease of horses characterized by general septicemia, respiratory problem accompanied by severe persistent + dry cough, nasal discharge.

Etiology:

Equine influenza virus — > Genus Influenza virus — > Family Orthomyxoviridae

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

It is a progressive transmissible neurological disease of bovine characterized by sponge like destruction of brain.

Etiology:

BSE is caused by poorly understood type of infectious protein particle called “Prion”. It has also zoonotic importance.

Signs:

Initially abnormal gait particularly hind limb locomotion, behavioral disorders, ataxia, hyperesthesia, excessive salivation, pruritis, rubbing of head, incoordination, restricted stride.

Rx: Not yet possible.

Amphotericin B is somewhat helpful delay the disease but not cure.

Control: Ban on feeding of ruminant derived protein feed.

Canine Distemper

It is an acute highly infectious viral disease of carnivores characterized by diphasic fever, ocular and nasal catarrh and frequent cutaneous eruptions. This infection is often manifested by bronchopneumonia, gastroenteritis and encephalitis.

Forms of CD

1. Pulmonary form: Oculo-nasal discharge, pharyngitis, Broncho- pneumonia is the common feature. The pulmonary form is more prevalent than the digestive form.
2. Digestive form: Loss of appetite, vomition, abdominal pain, semisolid or loose feces, hemorrhagic enteritis is common in young

• Ocular form: Swollen eyelids, conjunctivitis, and purulent discharge from

1. Nervous form: Restlessness, excitement, chewing movement, excessive salivation and

Lymphopenia is the distinct feature of canine distemper. The muscular spasm may be observed in the lips, alae nasii, cheeks, jaws, head, neck or limb muscles.

1. Cutaneous form: Appearance of rash, vesicles and

In some cases, skin of foot pads and nose become hard due to hyperkeratosis and the condition is described as “Hard Pad Disease”.

There may be vesiculo-pustular eruptions on the ventral aspect of the abdomen and on the inner parts of thighs.

Rx:

Symptomatic; Anti CD-serum to control the neurological damage. Sedative and anticonvulsants should be given

Rabies

It is an acute viral infection in man and other warm blooded animals.

Etiology:

Rabies virus, Genus Lyssa virus and Family Rhabdoviridae

It is a bullet shaped virus; Alkali, sunlight and moderate heat destroy virus. It can be preserved in 50% glycerol.

Pathogenesis:

Following bite, virus is deposited in the depth of wound in the infected saliva. Then local replication of virus in the epithelial cells or myocytes; move centripetally to the central nervous system; nervous pathways @ 3mm/hr virus invade ganglion cells and then centrifugally to the peripheral nerves.

Stage of excitement:

In this stage, the excitability and irritability increases and dog become very much aggressive. This period may last for 1-7 days. At the onset the dog may hide in dark place due to photophobia. Change in bark due to paralysis of the vocal cord. There is drooling of saliva.

Dumb form:

This form is known as paralytic form. In this form, there is paralysis of lower jaw, tongue, larynx, and hind quarter. The dogs are not capable to bite man and other animals on their feces. Rabies in cats is usually more furious in form than dog. Cat used to bite man and other animals on their faces.

Rx:

No specific treatment for clinical rabies; we can use sedative some drugs like Vinkristin, Scopolamide hydrobromide give good response against rabies virus in experimental animals. The site of bite should be washed with running water and soap.

Parvovirus Infection in Dogs

It is characterized by enteritis and myocarditis with high morbidity rate (upto 100%) and frequent mortality (upto10%).

Etiology:

Parvovirus, Genus Parvovirus and Family Parvoviridae

Clinical Findings:

There are two forms of this disease:

1. Parvovirus enteritis:

Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, serious in pups, vomition, and diarrhea. Polydipsia, Frothy yellow colored vomitus, retching and restlessness. The animal is then pass brownish semi-solid feces admixed with excess mucus followed by foeted haemorrhagic diarrhea.

1. Parvovirus myocarditis

 

ENDOPARASITIC INFESTATIONS

Schistosomiasis

Syn: Nasa

It is a trematodal infection of cattle, sheep, goat, dog and man caused by schistosoma worms.

Causative Agent: Schistosoma bovis

Life Cycle:

Ovigerous female penetrate deeply into the small vessels of mucus or submucus of the intestine — > eggs in the capillaries — > eggs pass out of the body through the feces — > Hatching of eggs in water releasing miracidium — > penetrate the intermediate host (i.e. Snail) — > development inside the intermediate host into cercariae — > cercarie come out of the body of the snail and move in the water — > animals which come to the water hording are attached by cercariae, it either penetrate the body or taken place by animals through drinking water. Cercariae penetrate the blood vessels and reach their site of predilection via genera blood circulation.

Intestinal Schistosomiasis

Acute form of schistosomiasis, because of presence of large number of ovigerous females in blood vessels and passage of large number eggs through intestinal wall, severe hemorrhagic lesions appear in the wall of posterior part of small intestine and caecum particularly.

In chronic cases, there is scar formation and destruction of intestinal glands which affect the general health condition of animal.

Rx:

For intestinal and hepatic schistosomiasis, Praziquantal @ 20 mg / kg orally for 3 days.

Clinical Findings:

In acute case, profuse diarrhea or dysentery. In chronic case, animal becomes emaciated, anemic and eosinophilia.

Nasal Schistosomiasis

Adult parasites reach the veins of the nasal mucosa and cause rhinitis. Eggs cause small abscess on the mucous membrane of nasal cavity by sloughing out from the blood vessels. Fibrous tissue develops and leads to the large cauliflower like growth in the nasal passage. These are actually granulomatous growth. Common in cattle than buffaloes. The condition is known as “Nasal granuloma” in local language “Nasa”.

Clinical Findings:

Typical symptoms is rhinitis, muco-purulent discharge along with coryza, sneezing and dyspnoea. When large granuloma develop typical snoring sound which is audible from a reasonable distance.

Rx:

Tarter emetic @ 2 mg/kg SC or IM daily for 6 days. Copper sulphate is also effective to control the snails and is mixed in water.

Hepatic Fascioliasis

Syn: Liver fluke disease

Etiology: Fasciola hepatica – in hilly areas (sheep liver fluke) Fasciola gigantica – in plane areas (deer liver fluke)

Life Cycle:

Bile duct (adult lay eggs) — > pass out through feces — > hatch to Miracidium (larval form)

— > take up by snail — > convert to sporocyte in the body of snail — > form to Radiae — > Cercarie — > encapsulate to form Metacercarie — > contaminate the fodder and grass — > taken up by foragers — > go to intestine — > reach the hepatic portal vein (via duodenum) —

> Liver — > Bile duct where it matures to form adult fluke.

Female lays egg 20,000 per day. Life cycle completes in 16 to 17 weeks.

Pathogenesis:

The metacercariae penetrate through intestinal wall and reach peritoneal cavity. They migrate towards liver through peritoneum and then migrate through the liver parenchyma.

Acute fascioliasis

It is found in sheep, not in cattle. Acute form is rare and chronic is common. In acute form, there is traumatic hepatitis due to migration of large no. of metacercariae.

Chronic fascioliasis

It is found in all types of animals of all ages including man. Common pathogenesis is progressive biliary cirrhosis of liver followed by hard fibrotic liver. Wall of bile duct becomes thickened. In cattle, depletion of calcium in bile duct is common pathogenesis. In cattle bile duct protrude out of the surface of the liver giving it a clay pipe appearance which is popularly known as “Pipe stem”.

Clinical Findings:

Acute fascioliasis in sheep most common occur as sudden death with discharge of frothy blood, through nostrils and anus.

In chronic form, animal becomes lazy, mucous membranes become pale and skin becomes dry, subsequently edema starts developing particularly below the mandibles and the condition is known as bottle jaw condition. In cattle, most common symptoms are digestive disturbance, emaciation, constipation with animal feeding very difficulty in defecation and followed by diarrhea in extreme cases.

Diagnosis:

Symptoms, if parasite in bile duct, findings of eggs in feces.

Rx:

Triclabendazole in specific compound for use in sheep and cattle @ 10 mg/kg in sheep and 12 mg/k g in cattle. It is highly effective against all stage of fluke.

Rafaxonide @ 7.5 mg/kg (80-90% effective).

Albendazole @ 7.5 mg/kg in sheep and 10 mg/kg in cattle. It is effective against adult fluke.

Dictylocaulus viviparous is the only lungworm of cattle which is most of the time, treated with albendazole successfully. Trichinella spiralis is found in muscles.

 

TAPEWORM INFESTATIONS

Cestodes (tapeworms) belonging to Moniezia spp. in ruminants and Anocephala spp in horses. Transmission by ingestion of infected free living pasture mites.

Signs:

Large no. of tapeworms form closely packed ball in the intestine and may cause obstruction, digestive disturbances including constipation, mild diarrhea and dysentery. Animal occasionally move in circle and show masticatory movement of jaw. In horses, enlargement of belly and symptoms of colic may appear.

Rx:

Albendazole @ 10 mg/kg for horses; Praziquantal @ 1 mg/kg

 

Coenurosis

Syn: Gid, Sturdy

This condition is caused by invasion of the brain and spinal cord by the intermediate stage (i.e. coenurus cerebralis) of cestode “Taenia multiceps” which inhabits the intestine of dogs and wild canidae (intermediate hosts). Disease can occur in sheep, goat, cattle, horses and wild ruminants. Clinically it is primarily a disease of sheep and occasionally cattle.

Clinical Findings:

Ataxia, Muscle tremor, Excitability and Collapse. The most obvious sign in slowly developing partial or complete blindness in one eye.

Dullness, Head pressing, incomplete mastication, and periodic epileptiform convulsion are the usual signs. If the cyst is present on the spinal cord, there is gradual development of paresis and eventually inability to rise. If cyst is in brain then there is deviation of head and circling. The neurological signs are referred to as “Gid or Staggers”.

Diagnosis:

On the basis of signs and particularly characteristic gid movement

Rx:

Surgical drainage of cyst

 

Haemonchosis in Ruminants

Syn: Barber pole disease

It is one of the most pathogenic blood sucking nematodal infestation of sheep gat and cattle. It occurs in the forestomach (abomasum) of the above animals.

Etiology:

Haemonchus placei; in cattle (10,000 eggs per day) Haemonchus contortus; in sheep and goat

Life Cycle:

Eggs in feces — > hatch in favorable condition (27 C – 36 C) and high moisture — > After 1^st and 2^nd stage, 3^rd infective larval stage come out — > ingested by the animal while grazing

— > become adult in abomasum.

No intermediate host. It is more common in hot and humid season.

Clinical Findings:

Acute form of disease is found in lambs and young sheep. There is loose bloody diarrhea; mucus membrane and conjunctiva are extremely pale due to severe anemia.

 

Rx of acute mastitis:

Udder infusions:

For lactating: Ampicillin + Na-cloxacillin For dry animals: Benzathin + Cloxacillin

For G-ve bacteria: Furazolidone in procaine penicillin

 

Modern Rx of mastitis

TMP + Sulphadiazine

Penicillin G intramammary for 5 days at evening

 

Hemorrhagic Septicemia (H.S)

Syn: Barbone

Spp affected: Cattle, buffalo, swine, sheep

It is an acute, subacute infectious disease of septicemic nature, which is characterized by

1. i) Acute gastroenteritis ii) Subacute edema iii) Serifibrinous pleuropneumonia
2. iv) Edema of intra-alveolar tissues

Causative agent: Pasteurella spp., P.boviseptica (Cattle), P.bubalospetica (Buffalo)

PM lesions: Subacute edema of head, neck thorax, and throat. Serofibrinous exudate in the subcutaneous tissues of the head, neck throat dewlap and thorax. Edema of buccal and pharyngeal mucosa. Swelling of tongue. Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis. Petechial hemorrhages on tissues and membranes. Enlargement of lymphatic glands. Hemorrhagic endocarditis and serofibrinous pericarditis.

Pectoral or thoracic form:

Thoracic cavity contains serous or sero-fibrinous exudate. Visceral pleura studded with hemorrhages. Lungs are edematous

Clinical sings: Temp up to 106 F, constipation –> thin fluid containing flakes and blood mucus or fibrin. Head, neck, thorax, dewlap are swollen, hot, tense, and painful. Buccal membrane is edematous and tongue swollen, rendering deglutition difficult. Laboured respiration. Death from asphyxia or exhaustion due to the severe gastroenteritis.

Pneumonic form:

Prostration, Drooping ears, Congested hemorrhagic mucosa, Protruded tongue, Open mouth, Sever dyspnoeae.

Rx: i) OTC, IV @ 1 mg/kg bwt for 3 days ii) Chloramphenicol, IV @ 10 mg/kg bwt 3 times for 3 days iii) Penicillin dihydrostreptomycin @ 30,000 IU, IM for 3 days iv) Sulfamethazine @ 150 mg/kg bwt IV for 3 days v) Ampicillin @ 10 mg/kg bwt, every 24 hours

Mass Medication: a) Sulfamethazine @ 100 mg/kg bwt in drinking water daily for 7 days

1. b) OTC @ 3-5 mg/kg bwt in cattle feed for 7 days

H.S Vaccine produce immunity for 2 months. Bipolar organism and does not release exotoxins. Most susceptible age is 6 mo to 2 years

Tetanus

Rx: i) ATS @ 30,000 IU, IM, 3 times or after every 12 hrs ii) ATS @ 5000 IU in subrachnoid space once iii) Largactil (Chlorpromazine), IM iv) Procaine penicillin @ 50,000 IU, IM v) Benzyl penicillin @ 50,000 IU, IV

In calf, tetanus vaccine should be adopted first in 2 ½ month of age and breed in 3 month of age.

Black Leg

Syn: Black quarter, Myonecrosis

Causative agent: Clostridium chauvoie; G +ve anaerobes, normal inhabitant of GIT and soil. Species affected: cattle, sheep, goat, horses. In cattle, the microorganism is endogenous but in sheep and oat, it enters by shearing and tail docking.

It causes edematous swelling of muscles of neck, shoulder, back, gluteal muscles (myonecrosis or gangrenous necrosis) with crepitating sounds and foul odour from the necrotic areas. There are two toxins; alpha toxin and beta toxin.

Disease is characterized by myonecrosis, acute lameness, rising fever, muscle tremors, and ultimately death of the animal. Autolysis proceeds rapidly.

Rx: Procaine penicillin, IM @ 40000 IU repeat after every 6 hours. Benzyl penicillin IV @ 45000 IU repeat after every 4 hours.

Vaccination: Clostridium chauvoie killed vaccine can be used.

Botulism

Syn: Forage poisoning, Shaker foal syndrome

It is caused by Clostridium botulinum type D. Forage spoiled, spoiled food, hay spoiled in humid environment. Organism produce toxins that paralysis “motor paralysis”. Paralysis of masticatory, perineal muscles, tone of GIT also decreased. Animal becomes recumbent.

DDx: Tetanus

Rx: Botulinum toxoids are available

Enterotoxemia

Syn: Pulpy kidney disease

Etiology: It is caused by Clostridium perfrigens type D, G +ve organism

Signs: Clinically, high fever, diarrhea (pasting of hind quarter), Mostly affects lambs, kids and calves. Lush green fodders, grains, highly milk feed are pre-disposing to this disease.

The toxins are produced in the intestine and absorbed in blood. The kidney becomes pulp like so called “pulpy kidney” because organism affects the kidney and causes necrosis of glomeruli. Glucosurea, high fever, diarrhea, convulsion and death within 2 to 4 hours.

The organism causes sloughing of the intestine and diarrhea.

Rx: Penicillin, OTC (orally @ 10 mg)

Vaccination: 1^st at 3 months, 2^nd at 4 months, 3^rd repeat twice a year. Dam vaccination: 2 month before parturition.

Bacillary Hemoglobinuria

It is caused by Clostridium hemolyticum

Signs: Clinically high fever, hb-urea, dysentery, acute abdominal pain, dyspnoea.

Cattle and sheep are mostly affected. Organism releases toxin “phospholipase C” a beta toxin Abdominal pain is due to necrosis of intestinal epithelium. Severe anemia is de to loss of blood from urine and faeces.

Rx: Penicillin, OTC

Important Note: Deworming with Triclabendzole to kill the liver flukes because liverflukes provides the anaerobic conditions.

Malignant Edema

It is caused by “Clostridium septicum”.

Wounds are source of infection. Malignant edema in sheep is called as “Braxy or big head” because of edema on head. Malignant edema should be differentiated from black quarter on the basis of gas gangrene in BQ.

Rx: Penicillin, OTC, and washing of wounds with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂).

Anthrax

Syn: Splenic fever, Wool sorter’s disease

Anthrax is an infectious, septicemic, zoonotic disease which is caused by a Gram +ve rod shaped bacteria which can be killed by steam sterilization or burning.

Pathogenicity is due to four factors; (i) Lethal factor (ii) Edema factor (iii) Protective antigen

(iv) poly-n-glutamate capsule. This capsule has activity to prevent the phagocytic engulfment. Edema factor has edema producing activity. Lethal factors are lethal to leukocytes especially phagocytes. Protective antigen is the binding domain of the anthrax toxins. A combination of all these factors causes anthrax.

Clinical Signs: (a) Sudden death (b) High fever, Ruminal stasis, Hemoglobinuria, Bloody diarrhea, Bloody milk, Dyspnoea, Collapse. (c) Sever colic and bisket edema in horse (d) Splenic fever (i.e. spleen is enlarged, dark black in color.

Anthrax is a Greek word; mean “Coal” – dark color of lesions and blood.

Anthrax vaccine: Stern strain (a non-capsulated toxigenic strain)

Source of anthrax: (i) alkaline soil (ii) Contaminated animal byproducts (skin hides, bones and wool)

Forms of Clinical Disease: There are three forms of disease; (a) cutaneous (there is formation of papules, vesicles and pustules) (b) pulmonary form (c) intestinal form

 

Actinobacillosis

Syn: Wooden tongue

A disease of zoonotic importance

Etiology: it is caused by; Actinobacillus ligneresii; Gram –ve rods. The causative agent penetrates through abrasions of the mouth.

Disease is characterized by pyogranulomatous lesions on the tongue, gums, palate, and associated lymph glands. There is sulphur granules formation.

Wooden tongue is the disease of cattle and sheep.

Rx: (i) Na-iodide, IV @ 1 gm / 12 kg bwt (ii) Washing with tinc. Iodine and glycerin.

 

(iii) Penicillin can also be used.

 

Actinomycosis

Syn: Lympy jaw

Causative agent: It is caused by “Actinomyces bovis”. It is caused by wound disease involving bones especially of maxilla and mandible. In maxilla lesions, there is suppurative ostitis.

Listeriosis

Syn: Circling disease

Causative agent: It is caused by “Listeria monocytogenes” which is acquired through contaminated silage. Clinically it is characterized by encephalitis, meningitis, enteritis, abortion in last trimester and uveitis/opthalmitis. Microabscesses in encephalitis is characteristic feature of this disease. It has zoonotic impact and effect mainly sheep and then other ruminants.

Rx: Cholortetracycline or penicillin, IV is very effective. DDx: (i) Scrapie (ii) Gid (iii) Polioencephalomalacia

Paratuberculosis

Syn: Johne’s disease

Causative agent: It is caused by “Mycobacterium paratuberculosis”.

It is a chronic, progressive and diarrhoeal disease. It effects all the ruminants especially newborn calves, and young animals but the clinical disease occur over 2 years.

Clinically watery diarrhea, emaciation and weight loss.

The organism has long incubation period and disease remain subclinical and organisms shed through feces and milk.

Rx: (i) Streptomycin @ 50mg/kg IM (ii) Isoniazid @ 20mg/kg IM Vaccination: Vallee’s vaccine is used

Johnin Test: In this test, organism causes delayed type of hypersensitivity reaction. Inject Johnin extract I/D. If it will increase thickness, indicates positive case.

Tuberculosis

Causative agent: It is caused by “Mycobacterium bovis” – A zoonotic disease It is also called chronic debilitating disease.

Body weight loss, weakness, anorexia, generalized emaciation, low grade fever. In pulmonary form, chronic intermittent cough, dyspnoea, Tachypnoea. Lesions are called “tubercles”. In advanced cases, all the lymph nodes may contain tubercles granulomatous lesions.

Rx: Sreptomycin, Isoniazid, and Paraminosalvic may be used for treatment.

Tuberculin Test: is used for diagnostic and screening purpose. Inject 0.05 ml tuberculin intradermally (I/D). +ve case is indicated by increased thickness of the skin.

Glanders

Causative agent: Pseudomonas mallei – an obligate parasite and live in the host.

The disease is acute in ass, subacute in mule, and chronic in horse. Horses acquired infection by ingestion and inhalation. The organism deposits in lymphatic tissues. In pulmonary tissue, it first forms microscopic inflammatory foci, then macroscopic nodules, then larger, chronic granuloma + diffused interstitial pneumonia accompany this process.

At any point during these events, organisms go to air ways — > upper respiratory tract — > produce nodules in nasal cavity — > nodules rupture to produce characteristic punched out ulcers — > ulcer discharge a gluey, purulent exudate — > congested and hemorrhagic mucus membrane of the nasal cavity.

Bacilli also infect the tissues of limbs where they give rise to “Farcy”. Farcy comprises a “chronic lymphangitis” (Farcy cords) and “Lymphadenitis” (Farcy buds). These lesions rupture to produce purulent exudate.

In occult glander, the pulmonary lesions are provoked by stress — > leading to disseminate in the body and release to the exterior.

Mallein Test: Inject intradermally mullein reagent in eyelid. Swelling of eyelid within 24 hours confirms the positive case of glanders.

Strangles

Causative agent: “Streptococcus equi”

Strangles is a suppurative lymphadenitis of head and neck of horses. Disease is common and sever in young horses and foals.

1. equi is transmitted when discharges from nose or abscesses contaminate food and water, when affected foals suckle the mammary glands, direct nose to nose contact also transmits.
2. Pathogenesis: Mouth/nose — > Lymph nodes — > all is found in one or more lymph nodes that drain the pharyngeal/tonsillar region.

Failure of phagocytosis is due to (i) M protein (ii) Hyaluronic acid (iii) Leukocidal toxins. Incubation period is 13 to 14 days. Clinically, it is characterized by onset of sudden fever (40C), loss of appetite, halitosis, difficulty in swallowing, intermittent cough, extension of head and neck, swelling in the submandibular and a supralaryngeal areas, nasal discharge, inflammation of lymphoid nodules of soft palate and tonsillar areas. After 3-5 days swelling in the intramandibular or suprapharyngeal areas may increase because of lymphostasis and enlargement of affected lymph nodes.

The occlusive effect of lymph node enlargement is the source of disease description “Strangles” – Suffocation.

Sometimes abscesses in affected lymph nodes rupture. Suprapharyngeal abscesses drain into pharyngeal area resulting in a copious flow of purulent material. This drainage into guttural pouch matastasis of purulent material result in abscess formation in other locations such as lungs, brain, thoracic and abdominal lymph nodes. This is called “bastard strangles”.

The second complication during and after recovery is purpura haemorrhagica; which is an immune complex mediated vasculitis that occurs at 2-4 week, paralysis of left recurrent laryngeal nerve and anemia occurs.

Rx: (i) Penicillin (ii) Abscess drainage (iii) Fly repellent (iv) Corticosteroids (for purpura hemorrhagica).

 

EQUINE DISEASES

• Viral Diseases
  • Equine influenza
  • Equine rhinovirus — > upper respiratory tract
  • African horse sickness (Genus: orbivirus) — > respiratory/circulatory
  • Vesicular stomatitis — > vesicles on foot and mouth
  • Equine infectious anemia (Family: Retroviridae, Genus: Lentiviru) HIV like
• Bacterial Diseases
  • Tetanus — > Clostridium tetani
  • Anthrax—- > Bacillus anthracis

 

• Strangles—– > Streptococcus equi
• Glanders—- > Pseudomonas mallei
• Contagious equine metritis— > Taylorella equigenitalis
• Mastitis—- > Streptococcus zooepidermicus

• Parasitic Diseases

Parasite	Specie	Adult site	Larva site
Long strangyles	Strongylus vulgaris	Large intestine	Arteries/ liver
	Triodontophorus spp.	Large intestine	Intestinal wall
Small strangyles	Trichonma spp.	LI	Intestinal wall
Round worms	Parascarus equinum	SI	Liver, lung
Thread worms	Strongyloides westerni	SI	Lung
Lung worms	Dictylocaulus spp.	Respiratory passage	Lymphatics
Pinworms	Oxyuris equi	LI	Intestinal wall
Tapeworms	Anoplocephala spp	SI / LI	—
Bots	Gastrophilus spp.	Flies in environment	Stomach

 

Colic

Abdominal pain; visceral pain

Types of Colic

1. Spasmodic coli:

Increase in peristaltic movement and spasm occur. Intermittent bouts of pain with period of relaxation.

1. Impactive colic:

Impaction of bowl with dry and partial digested feed contents, bowl lumen distended and its motility reduced. There is continuous pain.

• Obstructive colic:

Passage of ingesta is obstructed either due to torsion or intussusceptions. There is continuous pain.

1. Flatulent colic:

It is also known as intestinal tympany or tympanitis.

There is distension of bowl lumen due to gas accumulation

1. Idiopathic colic;

No obvious cause or lesion is found.

 

PROTOZOAL DISEASES

Trypanosomiasis

Nagana

Caused by Trypanosoma congolense, It is transmitted by tsetse flies.

Signs: intermittent fever, anemia, weight loss, edema of limbs and genitalia.

Surra

Caused by Trypanosoma evansi. It is transmitted by biting flies.

Sings: same as above + progressive paralysis of hindquarter in chronic cases.

Dourine:

Caused by Trypanosoma equiperdum. It is transmitted by coitus [mating]

Signs: Genital and ventral edema, progressive emaciation, ascending motor paralysis.

Babesiosis

Caused by B. equi and B. caballi

DDx: Equine infectious anemia, Equine viral arteritis, Purpoura hemorrhagica.

Immunological Disorders

1. i) Severe combined immune deficiency (SCID); its hereditary It is caused by EHV-I in which immuno-suppression can

Vaccines for Horses

1. Influenza vaccines
2. EHV-I

• Tetanus [Clostridium tetani]

1. Strangles

 

DDx of Cattle Diseases in which Redwater Comes:

• Enzootic hematuria:

Grazing “Broken” There is hematuria with no pus.

• Enzootic bovine pyelonephritis:

Intermittent hematuria, + pyuria caused by “Corynebacterium renale” in cattle.

• Babesiosis: Fever 41 C
• Postparturient hemoglobinurea:

Low phosphate or low copper diet [no temperature increase from normal]

• Bacillary hemoglobinurea;

Diarrhea + Abdominal pain + Fever 41 C. Mortality is 100 %.

• Leptospirosis:

Caused by L. pomona. Mostly calves are affected. There is mucosal petechiation.

• Chronic copper poisoning: Hemoglobinurea, acute death

 

LIST OF DRUGS USED IN VETERINARY MEDICINE

ANTIPROTOZOALS

Babesiosis:     Imidocarb @ 3mg / kg bwt

Diminazine @ 3-5 mg/kg bwt S/C

Quinuronium sulphate [Acaprine, Babesan] @ 0.4 mg/kg bwt Tryan Blue [Fresh] @ 1-4 gm / kg bwt

Trypanocidals:

Suramine [Antrypol] @ 10 mg/kg bwt Diminazine @ 8 mg / kg bwt S/C

Anti- Giardia, Amoeba, Blantidtium, Trichomonas:

Metronidazole; in canine dysentery @ 50 mg/kg wt orally for 5 days In bovine trichomoniasis: @ 75 mg/kg bwt IV 3 times a day

Anitcoccidals:

Suplhaquinoxalone Amprolium

ANTIPARASITIC

Ascaricidals:

Piperazine

Against Roundworms:

Thiabendazole

Broadspactrum Antiparasitic:

 

Albendazole, Fenbendazole, Mebendazole, [Benzimedazole] Tetramizole

Levamisole

Pyrental pamoate [Combantrin] Against Nematodes, Ectoparasites and Heartworms:

Ivermectin Taenicidal:                       Niclosamides Flukicidals (Against Liver Fluke]:

Oxyclosanide @ 15 mg /kg bwt orally Broodicidal:                       Preziquantal @ 5 mg/kg bwt for cat/dog mostly

 

ANTIFUNGALS

Nystatin [Against Streptomyces Neursei] Griseofulvin [ Against Penicillium spp]

Synthetic:

Coltrimazole Amphotericin B Ketokenazole

 

ANTIVIRALS

Cyclovir Acyclovir Amantadine

Ribavirale [Against Hepatitis B & C viruses]

 

RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS

Nikthamide Amphetamine Sulphate

ANEMETICS

Dimenhydramine Diphenhydramine Cyclizine Meclizine

 

EMETICS

Apomorphine Conc. HCl solution

 

ECBOLICS [Uterine Contractors]

Oxytocin

PGF2 alpha [Dinoprost]

 

DIURETICS

Furosemide [Lasix] Mannitole

 

HELMINTHOLOGY

Study of HELMINTHS

 

Helminthology; consists of Study of

• Platyhelminthes: [Flukes, Tepworms, Flateworms]
• Nemathelminthes [Roundworms]

Platyhelminthes are hermaphrodite. These include:

• Trematodes
• Cestodes Nemathelminthes includes:

(a) Nematodes

 

Nematode	Trematode	Cestode
Round worm	Flat worms	Tapeworms
Spindle shaped	Leaf shaped	Ribbon shaped
No segment	No segment	Segmented
Unisexual	Hermaphrodite	Hermaphrodite
Alimentary canal present	Present	Absent

 

Trematodes: [Flatworms]

• Fasciola hepatica: [Liver fluke] snail is intermediate host. Condition is known as Bottle jaw (edema in intermandibular space)
• Fasciola gigentica:
• Schistosoma japonicum: lives in mesenteric and portal vessels of man and Causes Hematuria.

Cestodes: [Tapeworms]

• Raillietina tetragona
• Dipylidium caninum (common tapeworm of dogs)
• Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm of dogs)
• Taenia solium
• Taenia saginata
• Echinococcus granulosis; form the hydatid cyst

Nematodes: [Roundworms]

• Ascarus lumbricoids
• Parascaris
• Oxyuris equi
• Toxocara vitulorum
• Strongyloides : palisade worms

Haemonchus contortus; stomach worm or wireworm of ruminants

• Dictylocaulus pilaria [Lungworms]: in bronchi of sheep
• Habronema: cutaneous habronema is also called “summer sores” or Bursati or “Granular dermatitis”; habronema larvae
• Dicrofilaria immitus [Heartworms]; occurs in dog and cat, and right ventricle of fox, and there is pulmonary

 

Nematodes in Blood Exam

1. Dirofilaria immitus; Heart worm of dog, cat and fox
2. Dipetalonema reconditum; S/cut worm of dog
3. Stearia cervi; Peritoneal worm of

 

CESTODES

Sexually mature form found in intestine of vertebrate Segmented body, segment called proglottid

Larvae; 6 hooked larvae called hexacanth Intermediate host; vertebrate and intervertebrate Head is termed scolex

Larval Forms

Also called metacestodes Non-budding forms

1. Procercoid (1^st larval stage in arthropod)
2. Plerocercoid
3. Cysticercoid
4. Cysticercus
5. Strobilocercus
6. Coenurus
7. Hydatid

ENTOMOLOGY

1. Insects; Lices etc
2. Arachnids: Ticks & Mites

 

INSECTS

• Lices:
  • Hematopinus suis; Pig sucking lice
  • Haematopinus eurysternus: Cattle lice
  • Lignocanthus vituli: Long nose cattle louse

 

• Bugs:
  • Cimex lecturalis; Bed bug

 

• Beetles

 

• Fleas
  • Pulex irritans

 

• Biting midges or Punkies and Flies
  • Mosquitoes
  • Black flies or buffalo gnats
  • Sand flies
  • Horse flies; involve in the transmission of causative agents of anthrax, equine infectious anemia, Surra,
  • Common house flies: involve in the transmission of causative agents of typhoid fever, cholera, tuberculosis, dysentery,
  • Stable flies; Blood suckers e.g. Stomoxys; involve in transmission of habronema, equine infectious anemia,
  • Buffalo flies
  • Horn flies
  • Tsetse flies; causes Sleeping sickness of man and Nagana
  • Blow flies
  • Blue bottle flies

• “Strike” by Lucilia, Calliphora,

• Callitroga causes myasis of man and is called screwworms
• Tumbu flies
• Sarcophaginae: Flesh flies
• Gastrophilus: Horse bots
• Oestrus ovis: Sheep nasal fly; Called as “False Gid”.
• Hypoderma; Ox warbles

 

ARACHNIDS

• Mites
• Ticks
  • Argus persicus (Fowl tick); causes Tick paralysis and transmits Borrelia ancirina (Spirochaetosis).
  • Spinose ear tick
  • Eyeless tampans; live in sands under
  • Hard Ticks [Ixodes]

Ixodes recinus transmits red water; caused by Babesia divergens and B.bovis or B.bigemina Hard ticks are involved in:

• Tick borne fever of sheep
• Viruses of loping ill
• Coxiella burnetii
• Tick paralysis
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Anaplasma marginale
• Spirochaetosis
• Canine pirpoplasmosis [Rephicephalus sanguinus]
• Redwater billiary fever [Babesia equi]

 

Dermacenter reticularis (in Asia) Transmits Babesia spp.

Protozoal Diseases

• Babesiosis: Red water fever; caused by bovis, B.bigemina
• Anaplasmosis: rickettsial disease caused by marginale& A.ovis(Sheep/Goat
• Coccidiosis: Caused by Eimeria bovis, arloingi (sheep & goat)
• Toxoplasmosis: Caused by Toxoplasma gondii
• Dourine: Caused by Trypanosoma equiperdum
• Surra: Caused by Trypanosoma evansi

 

Babesiosis [Redwater fever]

Caused by B.bovis and B.bigemina (Intra-erythrocytic Protozoa) Mostly Cattle, buffalo, sheep and horses are affected.

Transmitted by ticks as following:

• Boophilus microphilus
• Rhiphicephalus
• Dermacenter
• Ixodes ricinus

Characterized by Anemia, Jaundice, Hemoglobinemia, Hemoglobinurea, and ultimately Death of the animal due to anemic anorexia.

This intra-erythrocytic parasite causes intravascular hemolysis.

Diseases is transmitted by ticks, and mostly found in high temperature, humidity and rain fall zones of the world.

Incubation period of disease is 2 o 3 weeks. Signs and Symptoms:

Anorexia, Depression, Cessation of rumination, Decreased milk production, Weakness, Membranes are pale.

 

Anaplasmosis

Caused by Reckettsial agent “Anaplasma marginale” in Cattle and “Anaplasma ovis” in Sheep and Goat.

Clinical disease is in cattle and subclinical in sheep and goat.

Signs are same as that of babesiosis but hemoglobinurea is absent in anaplasmosis. Long incubation period as compared to that of babesiosis: about 1 to 5 weeks.

It is also a tick-borne disease.

Treatment: Oxytetracycline @ 6-10 mg/kg bwt

 

Toxoplasmosis

Zoonotic problem

Caused by “Toxoplasma gondii”

It is a contagious disease of all species including man.

Clinically it is manifested chiefly by abortion and still birth in ewes and in all other species with encephalitis, pneumonia and neonatal mortality.

Treatment: Sulfadiazine

 

Dourine

It is a contagious disease transmitted by Coitus.

Characterized by inflammation of external genitalia, cutaneous lesions and paralysis.

 

PROTOZOAL DISEASES

Babesiosis

Syn: Tick fever, Piroplasmosis

Etiology: Babesia bigemina, and Babesia bovis Transmission: by Ticks esp. of spp. Boophilus

Hosts: Cattle is the most common. Others are buffalo, sheep and horse

Pathogenesis: Multiplication in peripheral blood vessels — > intramuscular hemolysis

Clinical Signs:

High fever, Hemoglobinurea, Anorexia, Conjunctival mucus membrane is brick red colored in initial stage but pale in later or terminal stages. There is low PCV [packed cell volume] value due to hemolysis of RBCs.

Treatment:

• Imidocarb dipropionate
• Diminazine
• Oxytetracycline

 

Theileriosis

Syn: East cost fever, Red water disease Etiology: Theileria parva and Theileria annulata Transmission: by Ticks esp of Hyalamma Specie Hosts: Mostly Cattle

Clinical Signs:

High temperature, Enlargement of regional and superficial lymph nodes, Tense ball like eyes with watery lacrimation. Nasal secretions also come out.

 

Trypanosomiasis

Syn: Surra – in horses, Pheta – in camels Etiology: Trypanosoma evansi Transmitted by Biting flies (Tabanus flies) In human, it causes sleeping sickness

Clinical Signs:

Intermittent fever, Sever petechial hemorrhages on serosal membrane and lymph nodes Spleen is swollen, Anorexia

Diagnosis:

wet stained blood smear is used for under microscope diagnose of parasite.

Treatment:

Surramine, Cymelarsen.

Dourine

It is a venereal disease

Etiology; Trypanosoma equiperdum Host: Horses

Clinical Signs:

Gross edema of genitalia, Mucopurulent discharge from urethra, vaginal discharge in females

Treatment:

Quinapyramine sulfate

 

POULTRY DISEASES

DISEASES OF CHICKEN CORRELATED WITH AGE

 

BROILERS, PULLETS, LAYERS

 

Typical losses to 7 weeks of age are 4-5%. Losses in the first two weeks account for 30-50% of total mortality.

 

BROODING PERIOD (0-2 Weeks)

 

1. Mortality
   1. Management
   2. Starvation/ dehydration – floor temperature, water management
   3. Navel and yolk sac infection: Salmonellosis, E.coli, Staphylococcus, Proteus
   4. Vaccine contamination
   5. Improper incubation conditions: small, weak hatchling or increased susceptibility to

 

2. Respiratory disease
   1. Aspergillosis (Brooder pneumonia)
   2. Vaccine problems (Respiratory reaction)
3. CNS Disease
   1. Avian Encephalomyelitis
   2. Encephalomalacia
   3. Poor vaccine placement (Pox, MDV)
   4. Spiking Mortality
4. Nutritional Deficiencies
   1. Rickets
   2. Others
5. Eye diseases
   1. Ammonia burns
   2. Mycotic Keratoconjunctivitis

 

GROWING PERIOD (2-8)

1. Mortality
   1. Coccidiosis
   2. Aspergillosis
   3. Ascites
   4. Marek’s disease
   5. Clinical infectious bursal disease (IBD)
   6. Inclusion body hepatitis / Aplastic anemia
   7. Ulcerative enteritis
   8. Necrotic enteritis
   9. Chicken infectious anemia
   10. Gangrenous dermatitis
   11. Blackhead
2. Respiratory disease
   1. Mycoplasmosis
   2. Newcastle disease
   3. Infectious bronchitis
   4. Infectious laryngotracheitis
   5. Colisepticemia
   6. Avian influenza
3. Lameness
   1. Tibial dyschondroplasia
   2. Long bone distortion (Valgus-varus deformaties)
   3. Infectious synovitis
   4. Bumblefoot
   5. Viral arthritis
   6. Osteomyelitis
   7. Staphylococcosis/ Other septic arthrides
   8. Spondylolisthesis
   9. Rickets
   10. Ionophore/ 3-Nitro-toxicity
4. Skin disease
   1. Gangrenous dermatitis
   2. Fowl pox
   3. Exudative diathesis

1. Skin leukosis

5. CNS disease
   1. Avian encephalomyelitis
   2. Nutritional encephalomalacia
   3. Newcastle disease
   4. Marek’s disease
6. Others
   1. Roundworms
   2. Toxicities – Mycotoxin, Botulism, Ionophore, 3- Nitro,
   3. Crop Mycosis
   4. Cellulitis
   5. Swollen head syndrome
   6. Inflammatory process
   7. Immunosuppression – IBD, CIA

 

PULLET PERIOD (8-20 weeks)

 

1. Neoplastic diseases
   1. Marek’s disease
   2. Avian leukosis
2. Respiratory diseases
   1. Infectious coryza
   2. Infectious laryngotracheitis
   3. Mycoplasmosis
   4. Infectious bronchitis
   5. Newcastle disease
   6. Avian influenza
3. Systemic diseases
   1. Fowl cholera

 

LAYERS (>20 weeks)

1. Neoplasia
   1. Lymphoid luekosis
   2. Carcinoma
   3. Sarcoma
   4. Marek’s disease
2. Respiratory diseases
   1. Newcastle disease
   2. Avian influenza
   3. Infectious bronchitis
   4. Mycoplasmosis
   5. Infectious coryza
   6. Laryngotracheitis
3. Egg production drops
   1. Newcastle disease
   2. Avian influenza
   3. Avian encephalomyelitis
   4. Infectious bronchitis
   5. Mycoplasmosa gallisepticum
   6. Infectious coryza

 

1. Nutrition / Management

4. Salpingitis / Peritonitis
5. Cage layer fatigue
6. Fowl mites
7. Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome
8. Parasitism: Capillariasis, Heterakis, Roundworm
9. Uterovaginal prolapsed
10. Fowl cholera

 

SPORADIC DISEASES

1. Tuberculosis
2. Botulism
3. Streptococcosis
4. Arbovirus infection
5. Pullorum/Typhoid
6. Other parasitic diseases

 

Infectious Bursal Disease [IBD]

Syn: Gumboro Etiology: Birnaviridae

Mostly young birds of 6 weeks age are affected. Broiler less affected than layers. At early age, bursa of fibricious does not produce B-cells – immunosuppression

Disease span is: 6-7 days. Morbidity may reaches up to 100%

Clinical Signs:

Birds sit with closed eyes and are unable to stand, drink and eat.

Whitish or yellowish diarrhea on vent — > bird pick their vent — > blood mixed diarrhea — > shivering

Lesions:

Dehydration is noted by shrunken lesions on legs, claws and joints are visible. Hemorrhages on thigh and pectoral muscles.

Bursa of fibricious swollen — > yellow exudate Opening bursa, hemorrhages and exudate

Kidney suffer from nephrosis — > swollen and large Spleen becomes enlarged

Treatment: No specific treatment Diuretics, Sugar in water to provide energy

Newcastle Disease (ND)

Etiology: Avulavirus (Family Paramyxoviridae). ND virus is of three types depending upon pathogenecity.

Velogenic:      Highly pathogenic – 100% mortality

Mesogenic:     Intermediate pathogenic – mostly affect young birds Lentogenic                       Produce subclinical signs only in young birds

No vertical transmission because infected eggs do not hatch.

Clinical Signs:

Increased respiration – fluid from nostrils Mouth paralysis — > increased temperature Greenish diarrhea — > Opisthotoc torticollis Wings drop — > lame bird

Lesions:

Hemorrhages on ventricular surfaces, caecal surface, serosa of the intestine and gizzard. Petechial hemorrhages ulcers on intestine

In caecum, caecal tonsils become congested. Congestion in trachea

Vaccine:

Valogenic — > Rockin strains Mesogenic — > Mukteswar strains Lentogenic — > Lasota strains

 

Avian Influenza

Syn: Fowl plaque

Etiology: Orthomyxovirus; three types of virus A, B, C Two antigens; HA (Hemagglutinin) NA (Neuraminidase) No vertical transmission

Clinical Signs:

Mild respiratory signs, sneezing. Swelling of head and face. Diarrhea.

Lesions:

Congestive, hemorrhagic necrotic changes in skin. Hemorrhages on digestive tract.

Vaccination:

No vaccination because there is frequent mutations.

 

PROTOZOA

Entamoeba histolytica; causes amoebic dysentery in man, dog, cat etc. Entamoeba coli: affects man, dog, pig and other primates.

Sarcocysts spp.; found in striated and heart muscles Cooccidiosis: There are 3 pathogenic genera:

1. Isospora ( 2 sporocyst and each have 4 sporozoites)
2. Eimeria (4 sporocyst and each have 2 sporozoites)

• Tuzzeria (8 free sporozoites)

Eimeria: affect sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo, cat, horse and poultry. Chicken: E. tenella (Cecal cocci), Intestinal cocci (E.brunetti) Cattle: E. bovis, E. zuerni

Dog: Isospora

 

Toxoplasma gondii

Affects rodents, cat and dog. Affects brain, heart, liver, lung and spleen.

Plasmodium

Mammals, reptiles, and birds

In erythrocytes and endothelial cells of inner organs Vector: Culex (birds), Anopheles (Mammals)

Leishminia

Man, dog, rodents, guinea pig

Found in macrophages, reticuloendothelial cells. Vector: Sand fly, phelbotomus and lutzomyia

Species: L.braziliansis, L.chagasi, L.maxicana, L.donovani

Trypanosomiasis

Parasites of circulatory system and tissue fluid Vector: Tsetse fly of Glossina species Stercorarian: spread via faeces

Salivarian: spread via saliva

Species:

1. evansi, T. gambience, T. bruci, T. cruzi, T. equiperdum

Diseases:

1. Surra
2. Chagas disease

• Sleeping sickness

1. African trypanosomiasis
2. Dourine

 

VIRAL DISEASES

 

Blue Tongue

Caused by orbivirus Primiraly disease of sheep

Spread by flies (culicoides) and mosquitoes (ades) and tick (ornithodorous) Characteristic stomatitis, rhinitis, and lameness

Clinical signs:

Increased body temperature (105-106 F), sneezing, coughing, salivation, redness of nasal mucosa, nasal secretion, blood tained frothy, saliva, edema of gums, ulcer formation at border of tongue, lesions of foot (coronitis + laminitis), wry neck (head toward side lacrimation).

PPR (Peste Des Petitis Ruminants)

Syn: Goat plaque, KATA,

Caused by Morbillivirus, family Paramyxoviridae

Clinical Findings:

Acute: Goat, 106-107 F, purulent nasal discharge, necrotic lesion in mouth, swollen lips, profuse diarrhea, coughing, dyspnoea, pneumonia

Sub-acute: sheep die in 24 hours, less signs are evident

 

Scrapie

Caused by Infectious proteinacious particles which are very strong stay against boiling Characterized by pruritis, abnormal gait, mostly chronic. Causes vaculation of neurons in spinal cord, pons, mid brain etc. There are tremors, locomoter disorders, pruritis, change in behavior, hematoma on ear and swelling of face.

Scrapie scratch reaction:

Nibbling, licking, abnormality of gait

Tropical Theileriasis

Protozoal disease

Caused by Theileria parva

Transmitted by tick of spp Rephiciphalus Hence, life cycle involves 2 hosts

Clinical Findings

Generalized swelling of draining LN throughout the body, fever, anorexia, depression, dullness, corneal opacity.

Rx: OTC @ 20 mg/kg

Anaplasmosis

Rickettsial/protozoal disease

Caused by Anaplasma centrale (more severe) Anaplasma marginale (less severe)

Transmitted by ticks spp. of Boophilus, Ixodes, Rephicepalus and Hyalomma

Clinical findings:

Fluctuating fever, pale mucous membrane, yellowish urine, jaundice, pregnant animal may abort, decrease in milk production, emaciation.

Rx:

OTC @ 20 mg/kg, and Imizole @ 2-5 ml/100 kg

 

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Mastitis

Inflammation of mammary glands (udders and teats)

Characterized   by    changes   in    udder   and    milk    composition   (physical,   chemical, bacteriological), neutrophils in milk increase.

Major pathogens:

Staph aureus, Streptococcus aglactiae, E.coli (70% contribution by first two agents)

Minor pathogens:

Pseudomonas, fungal agents (aspergillus, yeast), corynebacterium

 

Less in buffalo but more severe (sphincter is tight) 48% decrease in milk yield during production, also medical changes.

Phases:

Invasion, Infectious, Inflammation

Tests:

California milk test (CMT), Surf field milk test (SFMT)

Abnormalities in udder:

Diffused — > localized — > fibrosis — > gangrene Abscess formation in calves, atrophy

Rx:

Inj. Gentamycin, Enrofloxacin, Oxytetracycline, Intramammary – Procaine penicillin (400000 IU) + 30 ml distilled water + 1 ml steroid in non-preg. animal + merocin (fibrolytic agent) 1 ml.

Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP)

Caused by Mycoplasma mycoids – small colony

Large colony caused CCPP (Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia) Affect pleura + lungs

Peracute: Sudden death is observed

Acute: High temperature/fever (107 F), This infection may be sub acute

Rx:

Tylosine is more effective

Tick pyemia of lamb Enzootic – Staphylococcus Transmitted by ticks of Ixodes spp. Affects lambs of 2 to 10 week age It may cause sudden death

Contagious bovine pyelonephritis

Caused by Corynebacterium renale Affects kidneys, and upper urinary tract

Clinical findings:

Hematuria, colic signs, forceful urination, pyouria, depression, decrease milk production

Rx: Penicillin is the drug of choice

Caseous Lymphadenitis

Caused by Corynebacterium paratuberculosis (intracellular parasite of monocytes/macrophages). External abscessation of lymph nodes (initially pus is greenish, but latter on calcification gives onion appearance to abscess and can distinguishable)

Internal abscessation (liver, intestine, brain and spinal cord)

Anthrax

Syn: Wool sorter disease

Caused by Bacillus anthracis (Facultative anaerobe)

3 toxins (edema factor- I, Lethal factor II, Protective antigen III)

Rx: Curable if detected at early stage, Penicillin @ 20,000 IU

Listeriosis

Syn: Circling disease, Silage sickness,

Caused by Gram +ve bacterial agent,; Listeria monocytogenes There are four forms;

• Encephalitis (necrosis in brain)
• Septicemia (MOP in pregnant animals, placentitis, and ultimately death)
• Abortion
• Mastitis

Rx and Control:

Penicillin @ 44,000 IU / kg IM STD for 7 days

Black Leg/Quarter

Syn: Clostridial myonecrosis Caused by Clostridium chuvie

It produces alpha, beta, gamma and delta toxins

Clinical Findings:

Fever, lameness, stiffness of hind limb muscle, skin becomes dry and darker in color. Causative agents get entry by deep injury mostly in hilly and sandy areas.

VIRAL DISEASES

Canine Distemper

 Syn: Hard pad disease, Canine influenza

Characterized by diphasic fever, ocular and nasal catarrhal discharge, frequent cutaneous eruption. Due to secondary infection, there may be pneumonia, diarrhea.

Etiology:

RNA –virus, Canine distemper virus, family Paramyxoviridae; which is closely associated with Measles virus of human and rinderpest virus of cattle.

Clinical Findings:

Viremic diphasic fever, skin redness and pustules, gastroenteritis resulting to diarrhea, respiratory problem (pneumonia), reproductive form, nervous form

Vaccine;

1^st : 6-8 wk     2^nd: 12-14 wk             3^rd: 16 wk Dam vaccine: 1 month before whelping

Infectious Canine Hepatitis

Syn: Canine adenovirus hepatitis, contagious hepatitis, Blue eye disease, Blue eyes subside in 7 to 10 days.

There are four forms of disease;

Mild: mild increase in normal body temperature, mild photophobia, enlarged tonsils, sudden recovery is being observed

Acute: Increased temperature, depression, sceleral edema, conjunctivitis, lacrimation

Per-acute: Sudden collapse, > 104 F temperature, vomiting, diarrhea, animal falls and rolls. Chronic: Vomiting, purulent nasal discharge, recovered animal becomes carrier, nervous signs. Blueness eye due to cloudness of cornea

Canine Parvovirus

Syn: Panleukopenia of dog, Hemorrhagic enteritis

Caused by Parvo-virus, which causes depletion of B and T lymphocytes

Clinical findings:

Vomting, diarrhea, anorexia, dysentery, pale mucous membrane, gastroenteritis, myocarditis leading to heart arrest.

Forms:

Enteric            Congestive heart failure         Acute sudden heart failure

Vaccinations

2^nd month       12-14 week    from vaccinated dam

1^st at 15 day    2.5 month       from non-vaccinated dam

 

Rabies

Cold blooded are carriers.

Caused by Lyssa virus, belong to family Rhabdoviridae There are three forms;

Prodromal: 1-3 days; excited animal, stay in corners, dilated pupil, decrease corneal reflex Furious: 7-10 days: Over-excited, hypersalivation, muscular in-coordination, tremors, convulsions.

Dumb/Paralytic; 2-10 days: Ascending paralysis/centripetal paralysis, (H, FQ, Head and neck), No skin and GIT reflexes

Vaccination:

1^st at 3 month, then after 1 month, then after 1 month, then after 1 year.

Reservoirs: Bats and vampires

Equine Viral Arteritis

Caused by Togavirus

Characterized by edema, inflammation of vessels, fluid accumulation in body cavities, persistent high fever, lacrimation, spasm, abortion in pregnant animals,

Transmitted by Coitus

Postmortem findings Multifocal myometritis

 

Vasicular Stomatitis

Caused by vasicular stomatitis virus of family Rhabdoviridae.

Attack on oral mucosa, and coronary band, vesicles develop, which upon rupture becomes ulcers. Nasopharynx ulcers, epistaxis, and hoof may shed.

 

Equine Herpes Virus Infection EHV-1 (more pathogenic) than EHV-II Infection may be associated with:

1. a) Respiratory system b) Reproductive system or c) Nervous system

 

Dermatophylosis

Syn: Ringworm disease

Fungal infection Cause by Trichophytom equinum, T. versicosum and T. microsporum.

Clinical findings

Patchy alopecia, urticaria, pruritis, itching, pain

Use any skin ointments which may effective against fungal infection, Wash by 0.5% solution of Sodium hypochlorite.

 

Anhydrosis/Puff/DryCoat/Non-Sweating Syndrome

Due to beta 2 adrenergic stimulation,

Caused by 1) hyperkeratinization 2) Hyperthyroidism 23) Heat exertion

Clinical Findings:

Decreased appetite, increased pulse rate, tachypnoea, increased temperature and alopecia.

METABOLIC DISORDERS

Postparturient Hemoglobinurea

Due to low phosphate and copper dietary intake Rx: (i) 5 liter blood

(ii) Na-acid phosphate, IV 60gm+ 300 ml water for 5 days

(ii) Dicalcium phosphate orally

 

Milk Fever

Normal serum calcium level: 4-5 mg/dL Abnormal level: 1.5-3.0 mg/dL

Condition is characterized by hypocalcemia, weakness, depression of consciousness.

Low calcium level around parturition due to (i) Ca released in clostrum (ii) Intestine can not absorb sufficient calcium (iii) Skeleton can not fulfill the requirement of Ca+.

Along with Hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia and hypomagnecimia may be accompanied.

Clinical Stages: There are three clinical stages.

Stage I:

Excitement with hypersensitivity Muscular tremors of hind and forelimbs

Stage II:

Sternal recumbancy

Rectal temperature is subnormal (97-101 F) Cow unable to rise

Stage III:

Stage of lateral recumbancy Heart sounds inaudible

 

Treatment:

Ca-borogluconate, IV 25% solution @ 500-1000 ml.

Paralytic Myoglobinurea

Called “Azoturia”

A Metabolic Disorder of horses occurring during exercise after a period of inactivity on full ration. It is characterized by myoglobinurea and muscular degeneration.

 

Tympany / Bloat

Tympany is an accumulation of gas in the rumen while bloat is the accumulation of gas along with frothy foams.

Caused by leguminous plants + high concentrate ration + ruminal stasis

Treatment:

(i) T.T. oil       (ii) Linseed oil (iii) Carbacol Injection 1-3 ml S/C (iv) Nux vomica powder

• As last resort, use Trocar and Canula to save the life of the animal

 

VIRAL DISEASES

PPR [Peste Des Petitis Ruminants]

Also known as “KATA”

Signs and Symptoms:

• High fever
• Grey to yellowish discharge from eyes and nose
• Diarrhea
• Pinpoint grey or red lesions in lining of mouth
• Pale grey area and dead tissue mout
• Thick cheesy material covering gums
• Lips may appear swollen
• In later stages, nodules or crusts may appear around the mouth resembling contagious pustular
• Finally animal died due to pneumonia, difficult breathing and

 

Rinderpest

Signs and Symptoms:

• Fever, loss of appetite, depression, decreased milk production
• Running eyes and nose
• Erosions develop in mouth (gum, tongue, cheeks and palate) and leave areas of dead
• Discharge from eyes and nose become grey yellow and foul
• Severe diarrhea
• Dehydration and death

 

FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease)

Signs and Symptoms:

• Fever, loss of appetite, and decreased milk production
• Depression, heavy salivation, reluctance to move (lameness)
• In the mouth (lips, tongue, gums, cheeks and palate) blisters develop which rupture and leave
• Blisters + erosions are also formed on the They may become infected and hoof may loosen and become deformed.
• Sometimes, blisters and sores are seen on the teats and
• Pregnant animal may abort
• Young animal may die

Treatment Strategy:

• Isolation of infected animal from other healthy animals
• Amoxicillin @ 1 ml / 10 kg bwt
• Mouth wash with Gentian violet [1 part] + Glycerin [100 part]
• Foot bath with phenyl formalin + CuSO₄ (2%)

 

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Ovaries:

In Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat, ovaries are oval-shaped. In Mare, kidney-shaped and in Camel, these are like a bunch of grapes.

Cervix:

In mare and camel, no cervical rings. In mare, there are conspicuous folds in mucosa.

 

Age of Puberty

Specie                                                          Age of Puberty (in Months)

Cattle                                                           7-11    [Exotic breeds]

24       [Sahiwal breed]

Buffalo                                                        30

Sheep, Goat                                                 5-9

12       [Beetle breed]

Horse                                                           18

Cat                                                              6-12

Bitch                                                           7-16

 

Ovulation Time

Cattle, Buffalo                                             10-15 hrs after the end of estrus

Sheep, Goat                                                 24-36 hrs before the end of estrus

 

Heat Signs

• Dirty rumps
• Streaks of saliva by licking on flanks
• Rises her tail and move side wise
• Animal licks vulva of other animal and would like to be licked by other animals and put chin on the back of other
• Frequent urination

Nervous Signs

• Refuse to eat
• Bellowing
• More walking 2-4 times more than normal
• Discharge of mucous from vulva
• Decreased milk production

External Signs

• Swelling of vulva
• Butting

Most reliable sign of heat is “Stands to be mounted”. Heat without any estrus sign (external) is called “Silent heat”.

 

Length/ Duration of Estrus Period

Cow, Buffalo	16-18 hrs
Sheep	36 hrs
Goat	36-48 hrs
Mare	7 days
Bitch	10 days
Cat	8-10 days
Camel	10-12 days

In Cattle, and Camel length of estrus period depends upon mating, it stops within 1-2 days after mating.

 

Breeding Season

Majority of buffaloes show heat in:              October, November Majority of cattle show heat in:                                       April, May

Sheep and Goat ; Short day breeder              October, November Mare ; Long day breeder                                                        Mid February – March

Cat; Long day breeder                                  —

Bitch : Two breeding seasons in year            October, November & March, April

 

Seasonally Polyestrus

These animals which have many estrous cycles during particular season of the year e.g. Mare, Sheep and Goat.

 

Non-Seasonal Polyestrus

In these animals, estrus cycle continue through out the year e.g. Cattle and Buffalo

 

Mono-estrus

Estrus cycle occurs once in a season. E.g. Bitch, Cat and Wild animals

 

CL dependant animals for Progesterone

Cattle, Buffalo, Goat — > If we remove CL, abortion will occur

 

Placenta dependant animals for Progesterone

Mare

Different Stages of Estrus Cycle

Proestrus                    2-3 days Estrus

Metestrus                   3-5 days

Diestrus                     It is the longest period of cycle; 10-14 days. This is the period of CL.

 

Follicular Phase:

Proestrus and estrus periods are collectively called “Follicular phase” or “Estrogenic phase”. During this phase, estrogen level is more than progesterone.

 

Luteal Phase:

Metestrus and Diestrus periods are collectively called “Luteal phase” or “Progestrone phase”. Natural C.L. diameter is about 2-3 cm

 

Length of Estrus Cycle in Bovine

Cow                           21 days

Heifer                        20 days

Range                        17-24 days

 

Nymphomenia

There is hypersensitivity due to cystic ovarian disease [COD]. Female appear like bull, pitch of voice is also bullish, and there is relaxation of sacroschiatic ligament.

 

Fertile Life
Specie	Sperm	Oocyte
Cattle	24-48 hrs	12-24 hrs
Sheep	24-48 hrs	16-24 hrs
Mare	72-120 hrs	6-8 hrs
Human	24-48 hrs	6-24 hrs

 

In Bovine, ovulation can occur at any point on the ovary except hilus and part of the ovary which is attached to the broad ligament.

In Mare, ovulation can only occur at “ovulation fossa”.

In Camel, ovulation can occur alternatively right and left ovary. In Cattle, 60% ovulations occur from right ovary.

Basic role in the ovulation process is of LH [Leutinizing hormone].

 

Sponatenous Ovulators

Ovulation take place automatically (special stimulations are not required) e.g. Cattle, Buffalo, Mare, Bitch

Induce Ovulators

These animals require certain special stimulus for ovulation e.g. Camel, Cat, Rabbit.

In these animals, ovulation needs first copulation as stimulus (physical vaginal stimulation) – it is required for surge release of hormone.

Gestation Periods of Different Farm Animals

Cattle Buffalo

Nulli-parous Animals

The animals which has not given birth to any young one

Primiparous Animals

The animals that calved for first time in their life

Differential Point

In Rabies, animal start bellowing continuously but in estrus, intermittent bellowing. Restlessness in both, off feed, decreased milk production in both.

Estrogen alongwith progesterone cause appearance of pronounced estrus.

First estrus at puberty and after parturition is silent because there is  no or very low progesterone level at that time.

 

Act of Parturition

Calving                      Cattle/Buffalo

Foaling                       Mare

Whelping                   Bitch

Ferrowing                  Swine

 

Signs of Approaching Parturition

• Relaxation of sacroschiatic ligament
• Vulva size increased 2-4 times
• Enlargement of udder
• Opaque, yellow turbid discharge from teats
• Stringy mucous discharge from cervix (vulva)
• Anorexia
• Reslessness
• Frequent sitting and standing
• Arching back
• Kicking at belly
• Sweating in flank region and below elbow before 4-6 hrs

 

Role of Hormones in Parturition

Estrogen

1. Stimulate release of PGF2a from the uterus
2. Primes the uterus for effect of oxytocin

• Primes the cervix for effect of relaxin PGF2a

 

1. CL lysis
2. Strong uterine contraction Relaxin
3. i) Relaxation of cervix Oxytocin
4. i) Strong uterine contraction for fetal expulsion

 

Stages of Parturition

First stage        Dilatation of cervix               3-8 hours (cattle/buffalo), 2-6 hours (sheep/goat)

1/2 – 4 hour (mare)

Second stage  Expulsion of fetus                 1/2 – 1 hour (cattle/buffalo), 4 hours (heifer)

1/2 -2 hour (sheep/goat), 10-30 min (mare) Third stage                       Expulsion of placenta            2-8 hours (cattle/ buffalo), 1/2-3 hours (mares)

 

Puerperal Period (Involution period): Time to complete uterine involution.

Foal heat: Mare comes into heat 10-13 days after parturition, Mating at this time may have very less chances of conception.

 

REPRODUCTIVE BIOTECHNOLOGY

 

Artificial Insamination (AI)

It is started in 1954 in UVAS. In 1962, technology was accepted by government. A major semen production units in Pakistan.

Advantages:

1. Increase bull efficiency
2. Increase potential for genetic selection

• Decrease inbreeding chances

1. Discourage disease transmission
2. It provides facility at the door step
3. Semen can be stored for years

• Helps in progeny testing

Success of A.I. depends on:

1. Time of insemination
2. Proper heat detection

Mare: Insamination done 36 hrs before ovulation time and ovulation occurs 24-48 hrs before end of estrus. Follicle size: 35-40 mm

No. of Sperms per Semen Dose:

Fresh: 10 million        Frozen: 20-25 million

 

Methods of Semen Collection

1. Recovery Method:

Advantage: Maximum ejaculate can be obtained Disadvantage: Sperm loss and deterioration

2. Massage Method:

Disadvantage: Semen is not balance in composition.

3. Electro-ejaculation:

Mostly in ram/buck

Disadvantage: Urine contamination

4. Using Artificial Vagina (AV) – Temperature (42-44 C)

Gross Evaluation of Semen

1. Volume: depends on the sexual excitement and activity

Decreased: young male, excessive use of bull, incomplete ejaculation, failure of ejaculation, bilateral seminal vesiculitis

Increased volume relates with: Maturity of bull, body size of animal, reproductive health and vigor of male animal

1. General appearance:

Creamy (Grade 2), Light Cream (1)

• Presence of any foreign particle

6. pH of semen (6.5-7.2 is ideal one)

 

Macroscopic Examination

1. Mass Activity:

It reflects sperm concentration and viability

2. Motility percentage: 9% Sodium citrate solution is used. 80-100 Very Good

60-80        Good

40-60        Fair

20-40        Poor

0-20          Very Poor

• Concentration of sperms; by using hemocytometer

Extenders for Semen:

MYG, LYG, LFGY, FYG and Sodium citrate – egg yolk extender

 

Cystic Ovarian Disease (COD)

There are three types of cysts on ovary;

• Follicular cyst:

Follicles develop on ovary and after attaining a size of maturity (2 cm) persist on ovary for a period of 1 week or more in the absence of functional CL

There is complete deficiency of CL in this case.

Rx: LH injection, (hCG has function like LH) – Inj. Physex given IV @ 300 IU

• Luteal cyst:

It is unilateral single cyst on the ovary; leathery appearance due to lutinization. It is due to problem in release of LH.

• Cystic Corpora Lutea:

It is a CL with centrally fluid filled cavity.

Causes:

• Hormonal imbalance (insufficiency in release of preovulatory LH surge).
• Stress factors
• Toxins and infections
• Secondary to uterine infection
• Exotic breeds are more prone to COD
• Nutritional stress
• Increased milk production

Treatment:

PMSG or hCG (5,000 to 10,000 IU) or use GnRH preparations.

 

Metritis

Inflammation of metrium and pus form, no persistent CL, cervix is partially open.

Pyometra

It is due to infection, damage to endometrium, PGs not released and CL persist, cervix is closed.

Infection of Uterus at Open Period

Predisposing factors are unhygienic mating, ascending infection, wrong time insemination and other malpractices.

Types:

Three categories based on exudation, load of infection.

1. Endometritis

It is of three types;

1. 1^st degree endometritis:

Inflammation changes occur, mucus + pus in estrus period, most infection occur in this period, uterus less hard.

Dx: At the time of insemination

Rx: Lugol’s iodine is not given in pus condition but if 1^st degree becomes chronic and wall becomes thick then lugol’s iodine can be given.

Post A.I. single antibiotic non irritating inj can be given.

1. 2^nd degree endometritis:

Mucopurulent discharge even after estrus period, swelling of uterus is more resembling a pregnant (1- 1 ½ month) uterus, uterine wall thickened and swollen.

Rx: Antibiotic given for 7 days, Rest for a cycle, then Lugol’s iodine can be given after 10-15 days to generate new endometrium, endometrium has secretory function. Antibiotic @ 40-50 ml given I/U in separate horns (half + half) – Streptomycin, Oxytetracycline may be used for this purpose.

1. 3^rd degree endometritis:

Uterus size increased like 2 to 3 months pregnancy, cervix is closed, pyometra, persistent CL.

Rx: PGF2 alpha given for luteolysis of persistent CL. First E₂ (stilboestrol) given for flushing @ 1ml in buffalo — > make 50 ml solution and given intrauterine.

Important Points:

• Calving interval in buffalo is more than cow which is 470 days while it is 365 days in
• 1 cm size graffian follicle going to ovulate
• 1 cc = 1 ml = 10 IU

 

Infertility

Temporary failure of reproductive efficiency due to any abnormality e.g. endometritis, COD

Sterility

Absolute loss of reproductive ability in male or female e.g. Bilateral hypoplasia (congenital), Fallopian tube blockade, ovario-bursal adhesion.

 

Fertility

Ability to conceive, to carry viable fetus. By normal calving interval, calving rate, we measure the fertility.

Freemartin

In case of Freemartin, ovum contains both ovarian and testicular tissue. Freemartin is a classical example of intersex, in cattle when co-twin produced — > male develop normal while female does not.

Salpingitis

Inflammation of fallopian tube

 

Endometritis

Uterine mucosa is involved; most common cause in open period.

 

Metritis

When entire thickness of uterus is involved (uterine mucosa + myometrium)

 

Perimetritis:

When serosa is also involved

 

Parametritis

Adjacent tissue + uterus is involved in inflammatory process.

 

Synchronization

Causing animals to be in heat at the same time. It is done by two methods;

• Termination of Functional CL:

Use following drugs; Lutalyse @ 5 ml / animal, Estromate @ 2ml / animal,

Dalmazine @ 2 ml IM, Dinoprost (PGF2 alpha0

• P₄– containing Devices:

These are used which block the release of gonadotropins (GnRH and FSH, LH) for 10-14 days. When progesterone is spontaneously removed the gonadotropins are released in more amount and cause ovarian rebounce.

Devices: PRID , CIDR – Animals comes to heat after 2-3 days after removal.

 

Methods of Estrus Detection

• Visual observation
• K-Mar heat mount patch

Capsules having dye in it are placed on rump of animal, when animal is jumped by other animal, it rupture and impart color to back of the animal.

• Putting of yellow mark on back of animal

Color is rubbed off when animal is jumped by other animal

• Use of teaser bull : penis deviated
• Chin ball: can be used on bulls, when it jumps it colours the hook of
• Pedometer:

 

When animal in heat, it travel more (2-4 times), activity is observed through this device.

• Trained dogs: doing their job by smelling pheromones
• Use of close circuit cameras
• Detection of hormones:

Progesterone concentration decreased in milk during heat. It should be < 5 ng for heat. P4 conc. is also used for early pregnancy diagnosis.

 

Misconception and Abortion

24-48 hrs — > 40-30 mg DES (Diethylstilboestrol) or 4-8 mg Estradiol 2- 7 days — > oxytocin @ 100- 200 IU, IM

After development of CL , we can give PGF2 alpha, it causes regression of CL.

• 5 month — > PGF2 alpha
• 6-8 month — > PGF2 alpha + Corticosteroid (Dexamethasone)

After 5 month, PG for CL and Dexa for placental source of progesterone is destroyed because at that time, animal has two sources of P4.

 

Procreation

Creation of new individual from existing one.

 

Early Embryonic Death:

Mostly occur between 8-19 days after mating

Factors:

• Nutrition
• Age
• Cytogenic abnormalities e. chromosomal abnormalities.
• Immunological factors: embryo is considered as foreign Abortion occur due to not developing immunosuppression.
• Environment of uterus:
• Hormonal imbalance
• Time of I. and Sire Infertility

 

Important Note:

In case of hydroallantoic placenta is affected but in hydroamnios, fetus is affected.

 

Causes of Abortion

1- Non-infectious i.e. Genetic (Chromosomal abnormalities) 2- Infectious — > Different diseases

• Nutritional — > Starvation, Deficiency of A, E, D, selenium, iodine. Toxication of plants and weeds.
• Hormonal imbalance—- > P4 defficiency, E2 increased, Costricosteroids
• Physical Causes:
  1. Rectal palpation
  2. Transportation
  3. Making animal to run
  4. Major surgery
  5. Hyperthermia
  6. Allergies
  7. Shock

 

BACTERIAL DISEASES WHICH CAUSE ABORTION

 

Brucellosis Contagious abortion

Time of abortion:

Abortion occur in second half of pregnancy.

Clinical findings:

There is placentitis, retention of fetal membranes after abortion, uterine atonicity causes secondary bacterial infection.

Brucellosis causes infertility by introduction of infection from infected bull (bacteria resides in testicles, epididymus, seminal vesicles).

Treatment:

Vaccination, 4-8 mon calf should be vaccinated with Brucella 51 strain vaccine.

Trichomoniasis

It is venereal disease which is transmitted  by coitus of infected bull;  remains carrier throughout the life but cow recovers spontaneously after infection.

Infection is characterized by:

• Low pregnancy rate
• Mucopurulent vulvular discharge (iii)Early abortion
• Pyometra
• Edometritis
• Vaginitis

Visible abortion occur at 2 to 4 months of gestation.

Treatment:

Metronidazole is best choice for treatment.

 

Vibrioisis

Bulls remain permanently infected.

Infertility, increased no. of services per conception, early embryonic loss/mortality Disease spread through coitus or improperly handled semen.

Clinical findings:

Abortion is less common (occasionally occur). Organism is found in female genital tract, fetus, placenta, prepuce and semen.

After 13 weeks, local immunity is developed.

Diagnosis:

Agglutination test

Treatment:

Streptomycin at dose rate 25 mg/kg, Dihydrostreptomycin also gives good results.

Leptospirosis

Caused by L. Pomona, L. canicola, L. icterohemorrhagica

There is elevated body temperature, fetal death, abortion, still birth and birth of weak calf. Increased fever with icterus , hemoglobinurea. In some herds, abortion occurs after “leptospira mastitis”.

Transmission is through mucus membrane, abraded skin and urine of infected cattle.

Treatment

Vaccination of all pregnant animals. Dihydrostreptomycin @ 25 mg/kg is effective.

 

VIRAL DISEASES WHICH CAUSE ABORTION

 

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)

Caused by Pestivirus of Family Flaviviridae. It causes abortion and fertility in the animals. Infection can be characterized by pyrexia, leucopenia, viremia, watery diarrhea, buccal ulcers, nasal discharge.

Effect of reproduction:

Venereal transmission, and Transplacental infection

There may be abortion or mummification. Transmission is through oculo-nasal discharge, saliva, urine and feces.

Treatment and Control:

Extensive culling is recommended.

 

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)

Caused by bovine herpes virus (BHV)

It causes acute respiratory disease with conjunctivitis. It causes infectious pustular vulvovaginitis, abortion and infertility. Infection transmitted venereally.

Sweling of vulva — > congested — > vesicles — > pustules — > ulcers formation and release of muco-purulent discharge.

Similar lesions are found on penile integument and perpetual mucosa and prepitual discharge. Abortion occurs in late pregnancy.

Treatment:

Amolient creams on vulva and prepuce.

 

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

Gynecology

It is a branch of science which deals with female reproduction during non-pregnant period.

Andrology

It covers physiological and pathological aspects of male reproduction (word “Andrology” is derived from androgens).

Theriogenology

It is the branch of veterinary medicine which  covers all aspects of male and female reproduction. Dr. Bartlett introduced this term for the first time.

Dystokia

It means “Difficult birth”

Eutokia

When delivery of fetus is normal and spontaneous

Primiparous

Animal giving birth to young one for first time

Multiparous

Animal going to parturite 2^nd or subsequent delivery

Nulliparous:

Female which yet has not given birth to any young one.

Causes of Dystokia

1. Maternal
   • Uterus: There may be:
     1. Primary uterine inertia
     2. Secondary uterine inertia
     3. Rupture of uterus
     4. Torsion of uterus
   • Cervix: There may be extensive fibrosis
   • Vagina: Young age, Any tumor, injury or fibrosis
2. Fetal
   • Oversize
   • Disposition

To treat uterine inertia: we inject Ca- boronate + OT, 20 IU if position of fetus is right Schaffer’s method of rotation is used to correct the torsion.

Schaffer’s plank dimension: 15 feet long, 1 feet wide and 2 inch thick – wooden plank

Prolapse

It may be

1. i) Vaginal prolapse ii) Vagino-cervical prolapse iii) Uterine prolapse For correction: we can use:

1% solution of KMnO₄ for antiseptic wash, Apply cream like Kenadex, it contains Neomycin

+ Dexamethasone, Replacement of mass, OT injection given after replacement about 50 ml, Then Use Truss for prevention

Give pain killer (Diclofenic sodium) and antibiotics

Torsion

“Rotation of the uterus on its long axis with twisting of anterior vagina”

Uterine torsion is the complication of 1^st stage of labor or early 2^nd stage of labor.

Causes:

• Instability of bovine uterus which results from greater curvature of the organ being dorsal and the uterus being disposed anteriorly to its suspension of broad
• Incordinate fetal movement in which fetus try to adjust itself to its normal posture in response to myometrial
• Uterine instability (180 degree).
• Frequent sitting and standing behavior of water buffalo
• Jumping of buffalo/cow

Types:

1. Right-sided torsion:

Right ligament moves downward

2. Left-side torsion:

Left ligament moves downward

 

Anatomical Structures:

Oviduct:

It has three parts; a) Infundibulum    b) Ampula      c) Isthmus

 

Uterus:

It has three layers; i) Endometrium  b) Myometrium          c) Serosa

 

Placentome:

Cruncle (from uterus) + Cotyledon (from placenta) + Villi

 

Cervix:

Cervical rings varies from 2-5

 

Broad Ligament

It consists of following parts:

1. Mesosalpinx: Part of L. which is attached or support the fallopian tube
2. Mesometrium: Part of L. which supports the uterus (especially horns and body)
3. Mesovarian: Part of L. which supports the ovaries.
4. Inter-cornual: It is present between the horns

Pregnancy Diagnosis by Rectal Palpation

• Asymmetry of horns
• Fluctuation of pregnant horn; At day 30, the quantity of fluid is 30-60 ml
• Conceptus (embryo): On day 30, conceptus can be felt, it ranges from 8 to 1 cm
• Fetal Membranes: 3 distinct membranes (from outside)
  1. Chorion ii) Allantois     c) Amnion

Placentomes

Placentomes are more prominent at the base of the horn. These are present throughout the uterus in 4 rows; 2 dorsal and 2 ventral.

 

Fetal Ballottement

Strike the horn, the fetus will strike back your hand.

 

Feeling of Freemitus

Feeling of buzzing bee sound on uterine artery at 4-5 mon of pregnancy.

 

Teratology

Study of developmental defects of the growing fetus

 

Obstetrical Instruments

For Respulsion and Rotation

• William’s crutch repeller
• Binz’s repeller
• Fatal rotator or Uterine detorsion rod

For Traction

• Cords and bands
• Handles and chains
• Hooks (i.e. pointed and blunt)
• Krey’s hook
• Forceps For Sectioning
• Obstetrical knives
• Obstetrical spatula
• Obstetrical chisel
• Obstetrical hooks
• Fetotome

 

Size of Fetus

Age of fetus               Size (resemblance)

• month Mouse
• month Rat
• month Small cat
• month Large cat
• month Beagle dog
• month to onward Parts of the fetus may be palpated

 

Fetal Membrane Slip Test

Time to perform        Result

32 days                      Small thread in 1 horn

45 days                      Small strings in 1 horn

60 days                      Strings in both horns

70 days                      Large strings in both horns

 

Size of Placentomes
Gestation	Size of placentome (cm)		Resemblance
75 days	1 – 1.5		Pea size
100 days	1.5 – 2.5		Dime
115 days	2.5 – 3.0		Nickle
125 days	3.0 – 4.0		Quarter
150 days	4.0 – 5.0		Half dollar
180 days	5.0 – 6.0		Silver dollar
Palpable structure during different stages of pregnancy
Stage (day)	Ut. Position	Ut. Diameter (cm)		Palpable structures
35 – 40	Pelvic floor	Slightly enlarged		Uterine asymmetry, +ve fetal
				membrane slip test
45 -50	Pelvic floor	5.0 – 6.5		Same as above
60	Pelvis / abd	6.5 – 7.0		Same as above
90	Abdomen	8.0 – 10.0		Small placentomes, fetus
120	Abdomen	12.0		Samll placentomes, fetus, freemitis
150	Abdomen	18.0		Fetus, freemitis

 

Clinical Use of Important Reproductive Hormones

GnRH

(For release of FSH and LH) Buserelin @ 10-20 g IM [Dalmerilin]

Indications:

1. Follicular cyst
2. Acyclicity
3. Anovulation

 

PMSG/eCG

(FSH-like action)

Inj. Folligon @ 1500-3000 IU

Indication:

1. a) Superovulation in embryo transfer

 

hCG/LH

Stimulates follicular maturation and leutinization Physex Leo @ 1500-3000 IU I/M

Indications:

1. Anovulation
2. Ovarian cysts
3. Repeat breeder

 

Oxytocin

Oxytocin @ 10 IU I/M

Indications:

1. Milk let down
2. Myometrial contraction during parturition and post-parturition

 

PGF-2α

Luteolytic effect Dinoprost @ 25-35 mg IM Indications:

1. Induction of parturition
2. Induction of abortion and mummified fetus
3. Treatment of pyometra
4. Treatment of endometritis
5. Ovarian cyst

 

Clinical Use of Reproductive Hormones

Hormones are organic physiological substances. All reproductive processes are driven by hormones.

Hormone:

Hormone is a chemical substance that regulates certain activity of its target tissue (target is specific tissue which has receptors for the effect of the hormone).

Receptor:

Receptor is a special molecule present on the cell that binds with hormone to bring the required effect of the hormone.

Hormones are organic physiological substances. All reproductive processes are driven by hormones. When problem is there in the effect of hormone function then it also indicates that the problem may lie due to the number of receptors present at target site.

GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone)

• GnRH is the mother reproductive It is a deca-peptide hormone.
• It is secreted from hypothalamus which is 1/300 part of the It is the part of

diencephalon present at the base of the brain.

• Hypothalamus has three areas: a) Preoptic nucleus, b) Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), c) Anterior hypothalamic area (AHA).
• Hypothalamus is made up of neurons, secretion occur from cluster of cell bodies and gonadotrops in the pituitary are the target
• It controls hunger, anger, emotions and sexual process and

Factors which STIMULATE GnRH secretions

These factors can be divided into two categories, viz.: External or environmental and Internal or endogenous.

External Factors:

• Good balanced nutrition
• Viewing sexually attractive individual of opposite sex
• Weather (pleasant) especially in seasonal Long day is favourable for mare. Short day is favourable for sheep.
• Favourable, comfortable and stress free

Internal Factors:

• Epinephrine & Nor-epinephrine.
• Melatonin favours the release of GnRH
• Coitus in Cat (physical stimulation to vagina)
• In cats and camels the sexual stimulation favors the release of GnRH as they are induced
• ¯¯¯ Progesterone (P₄) and ­­­ Estrogen (E₂) in acyclic
• Sight and Hearing of sexually attractive (especially for males)
• Pheromones favor the release of

External Factors:

Factors which SUPPRESS GnRH secretions:

• Stress and Depression
• Starvation
• Prolonged sickness and Acute pain

Internal Factors:

• Prolactin (a hormone) suppress the secretion of
• Opoids e. β-endorphins, secreted while suckling, thus suppress the release of GnRH
• ­­­ Progesterone (P₄) will lead to low GnRH
• Low Estrogen (estradiol 17β) will lead to low production of GnRH. Estradiol 17β is needed for animal to be in heat.

Clinical Uses of GnRH

Managemental Uses of GnRH

• To enhance puberty in pre-pubertal age (To bring puberty earlier).
• To induce cyclicity in post-pubertal age heifers, if ovaries are of normal
• To induce cyclicity in postpartum females or early ovarian rebounce in postpartum
• To minimize the incidence of follicular cysts in postpartum

In high yielder cows, incidence of follicular cysts is high in postpartum period; due to low LH secretion. So all postpartum females must receive single shot pf GnRH 20 days after parturition.

 

Follicle on ovary —> ↑ estrogen —> LH will release upon GnRH stimulation.

No follicle on ovary —- > ↓ estrogen — > FSH will release upon GnRH stimulation

• To improve conception rate, give a single shot of GnRH at the time of AI. It will cause release of LH surge and ovulation will occur at time, so improve the conception There is about 5-10 % increase in conception rate.
• To improve pregnancy rate, give a single shot of GnRH 10-12 days post-AI. It will cause release of LH which ultimately acts on luteal cells of CL in order to stimulate the activity of CL for progesterone
• It is used in heat synchronization

Clinical Uses of GnRH

• To treat ovarian follicular cyst
• To curtail the prolonged heat period in mare. GnRH will cause release of LH, thus ovulation will For this purpose, it is injected at 5^th day of heat (estrus).
• To curtail the prolonged proestrus in In proestrus, bitch discharged blood out of vulva, so heat comes when blood discharge from vulva stops and female start accepting the male. Proestrus period in bitch is normally 10-12 days. In bitch, certain level of progesterone is also needed to come in heat, so inject GnRH after 10 days of proestrus, it will cause release of LH which ultimately luteinize the follicular cells and start releasing progesterone (Normally luteinization begins before ovulation in bitch).
• To treat the cases of delayed ovulation; because of property of GnRH to release bulk amount of LH hormone. Fertlization failure is because of delayed ovulation, so a single shot of GnRH at the time of AI or service will solve this problem and increase the fertilization

Products of GnRH

These are categorized into two types:

1. Natural GnRH
2. Synthetic GnRH

Natural GnRH Preparations

It is very difficult to get natural GnRH because of its so short half life. No clinical use has been reported, synthetic preparations are only available.

Synthetic GnRH Preparations

>> Gonadrolin:

Its structure is similar to that of natural GnRH. It is available with different trade names in the

market: Cystorelin® and Factel® [50 μg/ml]

>> GnRH analogues:

Such preparations are: Buserilin [Receptal® 4 μg/ml by Hoest; Conceptal® 4 μg/ml by Star], Lecirelin [Dalmarelin® 25 μg/ml]

Dose rate:

>> Gonadrolin:

Normal dose(for post AI or service, and follicular growth etc.): 250 μg/cow IM Dose for treatment of follicular cyst: 500 μg/ml IM

>> Buserilin:

Normal dose (for post AI or service and follicular growth etc.): 20 μg/cow IM

Dose for treatment of follicular cyst: 40 μg/cow IM

>> Lecirelin:

Normal dose( for post AI or service and follicular growth etc.): 50 μg/cow IM Dose for treatment of follicular cyst: 100 μg/cow IM

Precaution:

• You must wait for 8-10 days after If no effect, then repeat it.
• You also do attention on nutrition of animal from 1 month before Protein and mineral mixtures must be provided to animal in their ration.
• Animal with poor body condition usually does not respond optimally to hormonal

These are of two types:

Gonadotropins

1. Pituitary gonadotropins: FSH & LH
2. Placental gonadotropins: hCG & eCG

FSH, LH, eCG and hCG are gonadotropic hormones. These are members of family glycoprotein.These hormones are made up of alpha and beta carbohydrates molecule chains. These two chains are linked by covalent bonds. Alpha subunit is same in all these four hormones having 92 amino acids but beta subunit is different which is responsible for biological function. But alpha is also needed. Without a subunit the structure is incomplete and can not perform its function.

Half life of Gonadotropins:

Pituitary gonadotropins:        FSH:    2 hours           LH:     2 hours Placental gonadotropins:                      eCG:    >3 days          hCG: >12 hours

 

Comparative Features of pituitary and placental gonadotropins

Pituitary Gonadotropins                Placental Gonadotropins (FSH, LH)                                                (eCG, hCG)

Less half life                                    Long half life

Costly                                               Cheap

Low CH₂O contents                          High CH₂O contents

FSH:

Follicotopin

Growth of follicle from secondary to tertiary follicle It plays major role in synthesis of estradiole

Target is ovary

Source of natural FSH is pituitary of porcine or bovine. It is also produced now a days through genetic engineering by inserting FSH producing gene into the E.coli organism.

 

LH:

Final growth of follicle, ovulation, formation of CL, maintenance of CL. Target is ovary and CL. Source of natural LH is porcine or bovine pituitary.

 

eCG/PMSG:

Its action is like FSH in all animals except in mare where its action is LH like. It is released in mare at 40 day pregnancy by endometrial cups (specific structure formed by trophoblast cells of embryo) by day 70 of pregnancy PMSG reaches to peak level i.e. 100 IU per ml of plasma and this peak persist up to 3^rd month. During 4^th month capacity of production reduces gradually and in 5^th month it stops. No PMSG as endometrial cups are destroyed (destruction start in 4^th but completed in 5^th month). Fetus is 50% foreign for mother. In uterus local immune system becomes weak that it does not attack fetus. Pg weakens local immune system. Maternal system recognizes endometrial cups, kill them gradually, upto 5^th month all dead no PMSG.

 

hCG:

Acton is LH like. Embryo starts production of HCG by day 10^th of pregnancy because it implements with endometrium by that time. The outermost cells (trophoblast) start producing hCG. At day 90 the peak production of hCG is seen. At 5^th month its production decreases but low level 22 IU per ml of plasma of hCG continues to be produced in it till end of pregnancy. It is leuteolytic hormone. Embryo is responsible for its own life by producing the sufficient level of the hCG.

PMSG is a bigger molecule. It can not pass through kidney so can not pass through the urine and can not be detected. So blood is used to extract the PMSG.

hCG will pass through kidney in the urine and can be separated from urine of the pregnant human female.

Clinical Use of FSH:

• Infertility due to failure of follicular growth
• It is used for superovulation

Dose of FSH:

Available preparations: FSH-P®, Follitropin® Follicular growth: 5 mg IM, 12 hourly for 2 days For superovulation: 5 mg IM, 12 hourly for 4-5 days

 

Clinical Use of PMSG:

• Infertility due to failure of follicular growth
• It is used for superovulation

Dose of PMSG:

Available preparations: Gestyl ® (by Organon), Folligon ®, Fostim® Follicular growth: 1000 IU, IM

For superovulation: 2500-3000 IU, IM once in a cow

Clinical Use of LH:

• For treatment of follicular cyst
• For treatment of delayed ovulation

Dose of LH:

Available preparation: Lutropin® For delayed ovulation: 12.5 mg, IM

For treatment of follicular cyst: 25 mg, IM

Clinical Use of hCG:

• For treatment of follicular cyst
• For treatment of delayed ovulation
• Used in the Rig test

Dose of hCG:

Available preparations: Pregnyl® (by Organon), IVF-C® (by LG) For delayed ovulation: 5000 IU, IV

For follicular cyst: 10,000 IU, IV

Rig Test

Purpose: To confirm the suspected cases of cryptorchidsm

Action: hCG simulate the production of testosterone in blood

Take blood sample (Sample A) 30 min before giving the injection of hCG. Then give a challenge dose of hCG i.e. 10,000 IU

Collect the blood sample (Sample B) again 30 min after giving the injection. Compare the both samples (A& B) for the level of testosterone.

Result: High rise in testosterone level in descendant testes but no difference is seen in cryptorchidsm.

For testicular descent in pups: give a dose of 500 IU per pup, 2 times in a week for 4 week.

Prostaglandins

It is group of hormone like substances, derived from fatty acids mainly from arechidonic acid (essential FA). Arechidonic acid is 20 C polyunsaturated fatty acids with a cyclopentane ring in its structure. There are different classes of prostaglandins depending upon its structure. Mostly fatty acids are involved in inflammatory process. They perform functions as in blood pressure, reproductive organ, respiratory system, digestive system. Prostaglandins are ubiquitous in nature (all over the body). Histamine is stored as pre form in the body but prostaglandin is synthesized when it is needed on the basis of enzyme involved.

First prostaglandin was found in human semen by Swedish physiologist Von Euler in early 1930s (1931). He wanted to know effect of semen on uterus (mice uterus was used that showed contraction by semen effect). Histamine and ACH were two substances known that caused smooth muscle contraction but human semen does not have these two. So later he found the protate gland that causes contraction, present in the seminal plasma. In 1934 prostaglandin name was given to it. In 1959 Eliasson gave idea that prostaglandin comes from seminal vesicle not prostate gland and causes myometric contraction. Similar substance is released by many tissues.

There are different types of prostaglandins as A, B, D, E, F, I. E and F are important in reproduction. In male it may help in ejaculation of semen form male duct system. During 1960s animal scientists came to know that old CL regresses before new cycle starts. In 1969, Niswander et all found that in sheep the prostaglandin of endometrial origin causes cyclic regression of the CL. In 1972, in horses same thing found to kill CL. So prostaglandin of endometrial origin is luteolytic.

Function:

o Cyclic regression of CL. Due to strong vasoconstriction blood supply is reduced to CL and physical death of CL occurs. (at 17-18 day of cycle abundant PGF2α is released and drained by uteroovarian veins, directly passes from vein to artery and regress CL without entering general circulation. When we take blood from jugular vein, it does not contain prostaglandin).

• PGE2α is luteotropic, favours the growth of CL. It is vasodilator and increases blood supply
• Helps in transmission of semen in duct system
• In male prostaglandin causes smooth muscle contraction for ejaculation of
• Involved in ovulation. It is produced in follicle causing contraction of myoepithelial cells of follicular wall. (Indomethacien is substance injected into follicle, ineffective enzyme, no PGF2α and no So PGF2α is important for ovulation). Increased the pressure of follicle fluid, thinning of wall and contraction of wall leads to rupturing of follicle. (In endometrium release of PGF2 is activated by estrogen and oxytocin).
• At the time of parturition it softens the cervix and cervix is easily is
• Involved in first phase of PGF2α produced in placentome under the effect of increased level of estrogen.
• Fetal placental expulsion is also by the role of PGF2 α. At the fisrt stage labour it reaches its maximum concentration then its production decreases but contractions remain for placental expulsion and lochial discharge (It is blood mixed discharge from uterus that comes from 10-15 days after parturition).

Sources of PGF2α:

In female endometrium Fetoplacental unit during parturition Myometrium (parturition)

Grafian follicle (during ovulation)

Uses:

All its uses are based on its two primary effects/uses as the regression of CL and myomerial contraction. So uses are

• Treatment of acyclic animal due to persistent CL
• Treatment of luteal cyst
• Estrus synchronization (2 injections of PGF2 11 days apart)
• Induction of We use corticosteroids also along with it to finish all sources of progesterone.
• Termination of pathological pregnancies (as fetal mummification, fetal maceration, hydroamnios, aydroallontois)
• Termination of unwanted CL remains for 5-6 days insensitive to PGF2α, so give PGF2α after 7 days of ovulation to avoid pregnancy. Response of CL to PGF2α is better for 10-11 days aged CL than 7-8 days aged. Because receptors are not much effective on CL. Upto 150 days alone PGF2α can be used but after that corticosteroids are also used because placenta is also the source of progesterone and both CL and placenta should be regressed.
• Prevention of pregnancy. After day 10 the superficial attachment occurs but after 22 when attachment has occurred then it is difficult to remove because now here the firm contact has been
• For the treatment of pyometra because CL persists in this problem; so the CL is regressed by PGF2α, cervix is relaxed and E2 is then
• In mild or first degree endometritis – uterus is soft, cycle is normal, history of repeat breeding; so check for small flakes, so give some PGF2α.
• In silent Estrous without behavioral signs of estrous or weak heat signs,
• In reported anestrus – animal not coming heat according to owner/failure to notice signs or male in herd is unable to detect estrus also called subestrus; give PGF2α after 3 days animal will show sign. Progesterone assay can be carried out to know the presence of functional CL. If functional CL is present, give luteolytic dose. Luteolytic dose can also be given 72 hours before insemination. Animal comes into heat 48-120 hours. More than 70% comes in 72-96 hours, 30% in 48 hours and the later in 96 hours

Brands of PGF2α:

Dinprost- is generic name of synthetic PGF2α. Luteolytic dose in cow is 25 mg I/M (lutalyse, 5 ml contains 25 mg). In mare 5 mg or 1 ml

PGF2α Analogues:

Cloprostenol (500 μg IM or ½ mg or 2 ml) – estromate (ICI), cyclomate (star), prostenol (Selmor)

Fluprostenol – equimate (1 ml, 250 μg)

Fenprostenol Luprestenol

D-clorprostenol (being dextrorotatory) – Delmazine its lutalytic dose is 150 μg or 0.15mg in cow and 75 μg in mare. (2 ml in cattle, 1 ml in mare)

Mare should be administered PGF2α under supervision of doctor. Diarrhea, sweating, increased respiration may occur within 20 minutes. We can use spasmolytic in advance or after that if show any complication in mare. PGF2 α is strong bronchocontractor. In bitch, PGF2α is used in case of pyometra for 2-3 days. As leuteolytic it is not effective in bitch.

Estrogen

Chemically it is steroid (having 4 ringed 17 C structure). It is female sex hormone. Cholesterol (27 C) → Progestin (P₄) (21 C) → androgens (19 C) (male sex hormone) → estrogen (18 C)

All steroid hormones are derived from the cholesterol which is a 27 C molecule. In stallion normally large amount of estrogen is secreted in urine which is converted from testosterone. It is released by grafian follicle of ovary and cortex of adrenal gland. In some male dogs the estrogen may be produced. Here the sertoli cell tumor is the cause that results in high estrogen level and other dog will attract them. E2 is also produced in brain and adipose tissue. In placenta more amount of E1 is produced and it goes to featus (mytogenic) and help in fetal growth. When puberty is around to occur then increased reproductive tract development due to E2. In sheep and cow specially seen that in brain there is centre on which E2 works. Priming of progesterone before E2 work on brain is necessary for behavioral estrus. That is why silent estrus is seen first time.

E1 (estrone), E2 (estradiol), E3 (estriol), other are equilin and equilinium (in mare), most important is E2 estradiol. These are steroidal estrogens. Plants have non steroidal estrogen.

Functions:

• Androgens, if in high concentration, bring secondary sex characters prominent in the
• In fetus responsible for neural development which is different from male. LH surge release centre in brain is only in female and this is because of neural development
• E2 is responsible for secondary sex characteristics
• E2 causes behavioral heat signs in all animals
• E2 causes release of pre ovulatory surge of LH
• E2 softens the cervix
• Prime uterus for the oxytocin and PGF2α
• Brings more blood to reproductive system, increases tonicity of uterus at the time of So uterus becomes more resistant to contamination or infection; leads to growth of uterus.
• Pelvic ligament dilation
• Mammary gland development
• Decrease the chances of infection
• During pregnancy, E1 (estrone) level increases, so indicate
• At the time of estrus it causes increase blood flow to uterine lumen, promotes the growth of endometrium, favors production of mucous through mucous glands, causes relaxation of cervix, increases water content in reproductive tract, increases tonicity of myometrium (uterine contractability increases) and increases capillary bed of uterine Minute capillaries develop in proestrus and break of capillaries in estrus (some animals show post estrus bleeding).
• At the time of parturition it favours or stimulates the secretion of PGF2α, increases contractability of uterus and softening of cervix and relaxation of ligaments.

Preparations:

E2 (estradiol) or E2 -17 β. It has hydroxyl group. Its forms as ester include Benzoat, valerate, cypionate, propionate, dipropionate.

E2 – 17 β 1 mg per ml

Veterinary product is agofollin (E2 diprpionate) (1 mg/ml)

DES diethylestilbesterol (non steroid estrogen) (10 mg/ml) (I/M or Intrauterine infusions are given). It is 10 times less potent than estradiol.

E2-17 β and DES are thick and oily so use needle of bigger guage. Tablets: ethynil estradiol 50 μg, 100 μg, 1 mg

E2 is high at proestrus and beginning of heat. E2 in heat is 30 pg per ml of plasma (sufficient to cause heat).

Clinical Uses:

• Prevention of pregnancy: in cow E2-17 β 4-8 mg per animal, DES 40-80 mg per In cow within 24-48 hours post mating. In bitch 3-7 days post mating three injections of E2-17 β 300-500 μg per animal or 10 μg per Kg. Half to one mg DES in bitch. It will slow down the movement of fertilized egg or embryo to uterus from fallopian tube by causing swelling and will not let the embryo to come into uterus at proper time. E2 is not preferred if PGF2α is available. Buffalo are more sensitive to estrogen. In buffalo it produces more side effects as low milk yield, excessive relaxation of pelvic ligament which may lead to vaginal prolapse, pronounced heat signs. There is ½ to ¾ less milk. It is regained within 5-7 days.
• Termination of pregnancies: Success rate is more upto 5 DES 100-150 mg per cow and 5-10 days post injection abortion occurs.
• In male dogs the treatment of prostate In this condition dog feels difficulty in urination. Tablets ethynil (estradiol acetate) 50 μg-1mg tablets, daily 1 mg or 100 μg is given. So dogs are hypersexual and prostate gland grows due to testosterone effect so the estradiol will block the site of the testosterone to block its effect on gland. Surgical treatment is better.
• Intra uterine infusion use in case of the pyometra. After PGF2α is used at day one. Then at day three 2-3 infusions after 48 hours (1 ml or 10 mg DES + 30-40 ml of distilled water) then give antibiotics for 5-7 days
• Non antibiotic treatment of endometritis ½ to 1 ml But PGF2α is drug of choice

• It may help in the treatment of torsion to avoid twist in fresh cases of less degree for purpose of cervical If old case then no response because of low blood supply and tissue devitalized. After rolling open the cervix by giving estrogen. For cervical dilation 50 mg i/m after correction of torsion. After 12 hours there will be releasing.

• In heifers some times cervix is short. So difficult to give antibiotic infusion. So give infusion of 5 mg DES.
• E2 Anabolic Effect: Zeranol (capsule like) has estrogen like effect implanted in ear for 3 months in cow and steer and give weight gain effect. Zeranol is produced by a Ralgro (salt is zeranol) has anabolic effect in cattle, sheep, goat has 10-15% more weight gain than the untreated animals.

In acute puerperal metritis (fever, off feed) estridol is contraindicated. Because blood supply increases by giving estradiol and it causes toxin absorption through this area.

Progesterone

It is steroid hormone. Its main source is CL. Before puberty it comes from adrenal cortex. Its effects are seen after puberty. When animal becomes cyclic, its production starts. Just after ovulation its concentration gradually increases. In cow ovulation occurs at day two. Then becomes carpus hemorrhagic and ruptured follicle is converted into CL and complete CL after 4 days and at day 5 CL is embedded in ovarian tissue and is soft. Normally 0.2-0.5 ng/ml of plasma on heat day. At day 17-18 CL is regressing and progesterone concentration starts decreasing. Cyclic cow on day 17 has more than or equal to 5 ng/ml of plasma in cyclic cow.

PGF2α when comes then CL start decreasing abruptly. Animal having high concentration of progesterone at estrus have not good conception rate. It affects the transport of gametes.. At day 5 there  is more than or equal to 2 ng/ml of plasma. In cattle buffalo maximum concentration of progesterone is at day 10-12.

Developing CL 2-5 day

Growing CL 6-10/11 day or young CL (2-5 ng progesterone) Mature CL 10-17 day (max. progesterone >5 ng)

Regressing CL 17-18-21 day (decrease P4 < 5ng) Regressed CL on hat day (minimum P4 < 0.5 ng) Functions:

• Progesterone and estrogen are antagonist. They work together during gestation period. As the pregnancy advances for uterus growth estrogen is accelerating. Progesterone suppresses the Estrogen is in higher concentration at the time of estrus, stimulates GnRH and causes the release of LH surge. In proestrus estrogen increasing and progesterone decreasing and it causes negative effect on GnRH.
• P₄ causes the maintenance of pregnancy, stops cyclic activity by suppressing gonadotropin release, puts negative effect on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and does not let the ovulation to occur. Progesterone also suppresses the heat signs. Progesterone released from the CL in non pregnant animals and in pregnant animals it also comes from
• P₄ suppresses the uterus contraction, so it maintains the pregnancy in contrast to estrogen that increases the uterus
• P₄ suppresses the local immune system response (suppresses infiltration).
• P₄ stimulates secretary activity of endometrium that helps in nourishment of early embryo as the fetus get nutrition from uterine milk (in form of nutrients).
• P₄ helps in closure of cervix and formation of the pregnancy seal (thick gummy mucus plug formed within the cervix).
• E2 forms the liquefied mucien form the thick ,During advancement of pregnancy estrogen and progesterone have synergistic effect as growth of

• It helps in maternal behaviour in

Clinical Uses:

• Estrus synchronization PRID, CIDR

PRID = P₄ (1.55g) + estradiol benzoate (10 mg) CIDR has 1.99g P4.

• Progesterone sponges kept in vagina, held with string outside, that act as artificial CL and keep the animal under progesterone effect and suppress the gonadotrophin It is kept for 14 days and then when it is removed, animal comes to heat after 1-4 days. (E2 in higher doses may act as luteolytic effect on growing CL).
• PRID also causes low conception rate as the gamete transportation is adversely So decided to keep it for 9 days instead of 14 days and also give a single shot of PGF2α 24 hours before the removal of devices.
• Synthetic progesterone a norgestamate is used for estrus synchronization as ear implant or It preparation is sycnhromat B. it has ear implant + norgestamate injection + estradiol. Estradiol has luteolytic function and interferes with CL formation. It is kept for 9 days.
• Used for the suppression of heat in female animals. As in show animals 5-6 days before expected date of heat give allyltrenbolon (altrenogest, regumate) as a feed mixed progesterone source (2.2 mg/ml) and dose required in mare is 33 mg per mare per day for 15 5-7 days after removal animal comes to heat.
• P₄ also used to get delay heat (means to postponed estrus). This can be used in synchronization of (Rgumate contains allyltrebolone)
• In bitch and cat P₄ will interrupt the heat and postpone the As the bitch enters in proestrus (bleeding starts) give the tablet (medroxy progesterone acetate salt. (Proestrus in bitch is 9-10 days). Dose rate is 10-20 mg daily for four days then give half dose (5-10 mg) for next 12 days.
• During anestrus period 5-10 mg for 40-60 days this is But the long term effect may cause the problem. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia will appear. This can lead to the pyometra in bitches.
• Also used as synthetic product melengestrol acetate (MGA) in feed mix for heifers (feedlot heifers) to get growth promoting In ruminants we need N balance maintenance. In cyclic heifer it stops ovulation, the follicles will form of bigger size and release more estrogen for a longer time thus have the anabolic effect on growth.

• In human being it may act as the contraceptive

Compiled & Presented by: MUHAMMAD SAJJAD HUSSAIN