| Global Zoonoses a |
| Disease |
Causative Organism |
Principal Animals Involved |
Known Distribution |
Probable Means of Spread to Humans |
Clinical Manifestations in Humans |
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| Bacterial Diseases |
| Actinomycosis (see Actinomycosis) |
Actinomyces bovis and other species are zoonotic; most human infections are caused by commensals of humans, especially, Actinomyces israelii |
Mammals |
Worldwide; very rare in humans |
Probably contact; actinomycosis usually disseminates from endogenous flora |
Granulomas, abscesses, skin lesions; chronic bronchopneuomonia; abdominal mass that may mimic a tumor; endocarditis; sepsis |
| Anthrax (see Anthrax) |
Bacillus anthracis |
Mainly in cattle, sheep, goats, horses, wild herbivorous animals; virtually all mammals and some birds are susceptible to high dose |
Worldwide but distribution is focal; common in Africa, Asia, South America, Middle East, parts of Europe |
Occupational contact exposure (abraded skin, mechanical transmission by biting flies, other routes); ingestion/foodborne, rarely airborne; early signs vary with route of inoculation |
Ulcerative skin lesions; mild to severe gastroenteritis ± hematemesis, bloody diarrhea, ascites (abdominal GI form); sore throat, dysphagia, fever, neck swelling, mouth lesions (oropharyngeal GI form); pneumonia; all may progress to sepsis, meningitis; untreated cases fatal in 5–20% (cutaneous) to 100% (inhalation) |
| Arcobacter infections |
Arcobacter butzleri, A cryaerophilus, A skirrowii, possibly others |
Poultry, cattle, pigs, sheep, horses |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of contaminated water, undercooked meat (especially poultry) has been suggested |
Gastroenteritis; bacteremia, mainly in patients with chronic illnesses; fatal acute respiratory distress, DIC, renal failure in a healthy child (1 case). Emerging, incompletely understood |
| Bordetellosis (see Respiratory Diseases of Pigs, see Respiratory Diseases of Small Animals: Infectious Tracheobronchitis of Dogs) |
Bordetella bronchiseptica |
Dogs, rabbits, pigs, guinea pigs, other mammals |
Worldwide; rare in humans |
Exposure to saliva or sputum, aerosols |
Sinusitis, bronchitis, pertussis-like illness; pneumonia and disseminated disease, usually in immunocompromised |
| Borreliosis (see Lyme Borreliosis) |
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| —Lyme disease |
Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex (B burgdorferi sensu stricto, B garinii, B afzelii, B japonica) |
Wild rodents, insectivores, hedgehogs, hares, deer, other mammals, birds |
Worldwide where Ixodes ticks are found |
Ixodes spp bites |
Fever, headache, malaise and other nonspecific signs early; target skin lesions in many; may progress to arthritis, neurologic and/or cardiac signs |
| —Tickborne relapsing fever |
B recurrentis, B crocidurae, B turicatae, B hermsii, B persica, B hispanica, others; some species such as B duttoni are human pathogens and not zoonotic |
Wild rodents, insectivores, possibly birds |
Africa, Asia, Europe, Americas; species varies with region |
Tick bites (mainly Ornithodoros spp) |
High fever, malaise, headache, myalgia, chills; neurologic signs or abortion possible; recurring episodes, often milder, after a symptom-free period; death in 2–5% |
| —Southern tick-associated rash illness |
B lonestari implicated |
Deer, birds implicated |
USA; most cases in southeast |
Tick (Amblyomma americanum) bite |
Resembles Lyme disease |
| Brucellosis (see Brucellosis in Large Animals, see Brucellosis in Dogs) |
Brucella abortus |
Cattle, bison, water buffalo, African buffalo, elk, camels; other mammalian spillover hosts |
Once worldwide, now eradicated from some countries or regions; reservoirs in wildlife in some disease-free areas |
Ingestion (especially unpasteurized dairy products), contact with mucous membranes and broken skin; strain 19 vaccine |
Extremely variable, subacute and undulant to sepsis; often nonspecific febrile illness with drenching sweats early; arthritis, spondylitis, epididymoorchitis, endocarditis, neurologic, other syndromes if chronic; case fatality 5% in untreated |
|
B melitensis |
Goats, sheep; other mammalian spillover hosts |
Asia, Africa, Middle East, Mexico, Central and South America, some parts of Europe |
Ingestion (including unpasteurized dairy products), contact with mucous membranes and broken skin; rev-1 vaccine |
As above; this species is highly pathogenic for humans |
|
B suis biovars 1–4; biovar 5 has not been reported in humans |
Swine and wild pigs (biovars 1, 2, 3); European hares (biovar 2), reindeer and caribou (biovar 4) |
Biovars 1 and 3 worldwide in swine-raising regions except eradicated from domestic pigs in North America, other countries; Biovar 2 in wild boar in Europe; Biovar 4 in Arctic |
Ingestion, direct contact with mucous membranes and broken skin |
As above |
|
B canis |
Dogs; evidence of infection in wild canids including coyotes |
Worldwide; rare in humans |
Probably via ingestion or contact with mucous membranes, broken skin; transmission occurs during close contact |
As above |
|
B maris; or B pinnipediae and B cetaceae (proposed names; classification uncertain) |
Marine mammals |
Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans; Mediterranean sea |
Laboratory exposure; sources of other infections unknown; rare or underdiagnosed in humans |
Headache, fatigue, severe sinusitis; neurobrucellosis with headache and chronic neurologic signs; spinal osteomyelitis |
| Campylobacter enteritis (see Enteric Campylobacteriosis) |
Campylobacter jejuni, C coli, occasionally other species |
Cattle, swine, poultry, dogs, cats, other mammals, wild birds |
Worldwide |
Foodborne (especially unpasteurized dairy products); waterborne; contact with animals including dogs, cats with diarrhea |
Gastroenteritis, often with malaise, headache, myalgia, arthralgia; typically self-limiting; other syndromes including sepsis are uncommon |
| Campylobacter fetus infection |
Campylobacter fetus |
Cattle, sheep, goats |
Worldwide |
Probably direct contact or ingestion; often unknown; some may be endogenous |
Opportunist; sepsis, meningitis, endocarditis, abscesses, other systemic infections in elderly, or immunocompromised, and infants; abortions, preterm births in pregnant women; rarely gastroenteritis, sometimes with bacteremia |
| Capnocytophaga infection |
Capnocytophaga canimorsus, C cynodegmi |
Dogs, cats |
Probably worldwide |
Bites or scratches |
Fever, localized infections to sepsis; often in immunocompromised or elderly |
| Cat scratch disease |
Bartonella henselae;Bartonella quintana; B clarridgeiae, other species also implicated rarely |
Cats and other felids; other Bartonella spp in canids, rodents, other animals |
Worldwide |
Scratches, bites, “licks;” exposure to penetrating fomites (barbed wire, crab claws) |
Lymphadenopathy, fever, malaise, rash in immunocompetent, usually self-limiting with complications (endocarditis, uveitis, neurologic disease) uncommon; bacteremia, disseminated disease, bacillary angiomatosis in immunosuppressed |
| Chlamydiosis (see also Psittacosis below) |
Chlamydophila abortus, C felis |
C abortus sheep, goats, other mammals, green sea turtles, snakes; C felis in cats |
C felis worldwide; C abortus in most sheep-raising areas but not Australia or New Zealand |
Contact with animals; C abortus probably contact with pregnant or aborting ruminants |
Abortions, septicemia (C abortus); keratoconjunctivitis, endocarditis, glomerulonephritis (C felis) |
| Clostridial diseases (see Clostridial Diseases; see also tetanus, below) |
Clostridium difficile; some ribotypes found in animals have been implicated as zoonoses |
Ribotypes from some calves, dogs are identical to ribotypes found in humans |
Worldwide |
Possible zoonosis; from contact or ingestion in contaminated meat |
Gastroenteritis |
|
Clostridium perfringens, type A (most common), C, or D |
Domestic and wild animals, humans |
Worldwide |
Foodborne (usually type A); nonfood-associated intestinal infection; wound contaminant, usually environmental; may be endogenous in debilitated from GI or urogenital tract |
Foodborne gastroenteritis, usually brief, self-limited except in debilitated; nonfood-related intestinal infection with prolonged diarrhea, sometimes bloody, mainly in elderly after antibiotics; life-threatening necrotic enteritis, often in debilitated; gas gangrene, sepsis; necrotic enteritis, gas gangrene, sepsis are fatal if not treated |
|
C septicumC novyi |
Domestic and wild animals, humans |
Worldwide |
Wound infection, usually from environment; endogenous cases in debilitated via GI or urogenital tract |
Gas gangrene; fever, life-threatening necrotic enteritis, often in debilitated; sepsis; gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, sepsis fatal if not treated |
| Dermatophilosis (see Dermatophilosis) |
Dermatophilus congolensis |
Cattle, horses, deer, sheep, goats, other mammals |
Worldwide |
Usually direct contact with lesions; mechanical transmission on arthropod vectors, fomites possible |
Pustular desquamative dermatitis |
| Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infectionsb |
E coli O157:H7; also implicated are types O157:H-, and members of serogroups O26, O103, O111, O145, and others |
Especially cattle, sheep; also goats, bison, deer, pigs, other species of mammals, birds |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of undercooked meat (especially ground beef), vegetables or water contaminated with feces; direct contact with feces or contaminated soil |
Diarrhea or hemorrhagic colitis; up to 15% of patients with hemorrhagic colitis progress to hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS); case fatality rate for HUS is 5–10% in children, up to 50% in elderly |
| Erysipeloid (see Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Infection) |
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae |
Swine, sheep, cattle, rodents, turkeys, pigeons, marine mammals; other domestic and wild mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, mollusks, crustaceans |
Worldwide |
Contact with animal products; via skin, usually after scratch or puncture wound; contaminated soil (survives for months) |
Cellulitis, usually self-limiting, often on hands; arthritis in finger joints common; endocarditis; generalization with sepsis, other syndromes uncommon and often in immunocompromised |
| Glanders (see Glanders) |
Burkholderia mallei |
Equids, felids; many other domesticated and wild mammals also susceptible |
Middle East, Asia, Africa and South America |
Contact with infected animals, tissues through broken skin, mucous membrane; ingestion; inhalation |
Mucous membrane or skin lesions; pneumonia and pulmonary abscess; sepsis; chronic abscesses, nodules, ulcers in many organs, weight loss, lymphadenopathy; case fatality rate 20% (localized disease, treated) to > 95% (untreated septicemia) |
| Helicobacter pullorum infection |
Helicobacter pullorum |
Poultry |
|
Ingestion of undercooked poultry suspected |
Gastroenteritis or diarrhea, liver disease |
| Leprosy (see Tuberculosis and other Mycobacterial Infections: Mycobacterial Infections Other than Tuberculosis) |
Mycobacterium leprae |
Armadillos; nonhuman primates (rare) |
Armadillos in parts of southern USA, Mexico; nonhuman primates in Africa, possibly other locations; only human reservoirs in other areas |
Transmission of animal leprosy to humans suspected—never confirmed |
Various skin lesions, sensory nerve lesions and deficits, nasal mucosal lesions; mild, self-limiting to progressive destruction |
| Leptospirosis (see Leptospirosis) |
Leptospira spp |
Domestic and wild animals; reservoir hosts include rodents, dogs, cattle, sheep, pigs, others |
Worldwide |
Occupational and recreational exposure; especially skin, mucous membrane contact with contaminated urine, infected fetuses or reproductive fluids; water- and foodborne |
Asymptomatic to severe, sometimes biphasic; nonspecific febrile illness, rash in first stage; second stage with aseptic meningitis (anicteric form, which is rarely fatal) or pulmonary and cardiac signs, hemorrhages, jaundice/liver disease, renal failure (icteric form, with case fatality rate 5–15%) |
| Listeriosis (see Listeriosis) |
Listeria monocytogenes (types most often associated with disease are ½a, ½b, 4b), Listeria ivanovii (rare) |
Numerous mammals, birds, fish, crustaceans |
Worldwide |
Foodborne, especially unpasteurized dairy products, raw meat and fish, vegetables, processed foods contaminated after processing; ingestion of contaminated water, soil; direct contact with infected animals; nosocomial in hospitals, institution; vertical transmission in newborns |
Acute, self-limited febrile gastroenteritis or mild, flu-like illness; ocular disease, conjunctivitis; abortion, premature or septicemic newborn if infected during pregnancy; meningitis, meningoencephalitis, septicemia in elderly, immunosuppressed, and infants; papular or pustular rash +/– fever, chills in healthy adults after handling infected fetuses |
| Melioidosis (Pseudoglanders, see Melioidosis) |
Burkholderia pseudomallei; (other species of soil-associated Burkholderia, such as B oklahomensis sp nov in North America, rarely linked to human infections) |
Sheep, goats, swine; occasional cases in many other terrestrial and aquatic mammals; also reptiles, some birds including parrots, tropical fish |
Asia, Africa, Australia, South America, Middle East, Caribbean |
Wound infection, inhalation, and ingestion; organisms live in soil and surface water; most cases are acquired from the environment, but direct transmission from animals is possible |
Mimics many other diseases; acute localized infections including skin lesions, cellulitis, abscesses, corneal ulcers; pulmonary disease, septicemia, internal organ abscesses; often occurs in immunocompromised; case fatality rate varies with form, >90% in untreated septicemia |
| Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections |
Staphylococcus aureus |
Horses, dogs, cats, other mammals |
Worldwide; rare reverse zoonosis or zoonosis |
Usually by direct contact; other routes also described |
Opportunist; localized skin and soft tissue infections, invasive disease including septicemia, toxic shock syndrome; mortality varies with syndrome and success in finding antibiotic |
| Mycobacteriosis (see Tuberculosis and other Mycobacterial Infections) |
Mycobacterium avium- intracellulare complex |
Many species of mammals, some birds |
Worldwide |
Environmental, from water and/or soil |
Soft tissue and bone infections; lymphadenitis; pulmonary disease, often in immunocompromised or those with pre-existing lung conditions; disseminated in immunocompromised, especially AIDS patients |
|
M avium paratuberculosis |
Cattle, sheep, goats, camelids, deer, other ruminants; rabbits and other nonruminants; corvids |
Worldwide |
Ingestion; accidental injection of vaccine |
Postulated involvement in Crohn’s disease after ingestion; severe local reaction if vaccine accidentally injected |
|
Mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (includes M simiae, M kansasii, M xenopi, M scrofulaceum, M szulgai, M fortuitum, M chelonae, M marinum, M ulcerans, others) |
Cattle, other ruminants; swine, cats, dogs, koalas, other mammals, amphibians, reptiles, fish |
Worldwide; distribution varies with the organism |
Environmental, from water and/or soil |
Same syndromes as M avium -intracellulare complex |
| Mycoplasma infections |
Mycoplasma spp |
Livestock, nonhuman primates, marine mammals, cats, dogs, rodents, other mammals |
Worldwide; zoonotic infections rare |
Direct contact; bites; wound contamination including accidental inoculation |
Asymptomatic carriage; cellulitis; other syndromes including respiratory disease, septic arthritis, septicemia have been reported, especially in immunocompromised |
| Nocardiosis (see Nocardiosis) |
Nocardia asteroides, N brasiliensis, N caviae, N otitidiscaviarum, N farcinica, N nova, and others |
Cattle, dogs, cats, marine mammals, other domestic and wild mammals; fish |
Worldwide; distribution of each species varies |
Environmental exposure (inhalation or wound contamination); possibility of transmission in bites, scratches |
Pneumonia; skin lesions, cellulitis, abscess, mycetoma; disseminated disease, including cerebral abscesses; many cases occur in immunocompromised |
| Pasteurellosis (see Pasteurellosis of Sheep and Goats, see Rabbits: Pasteurellosis) |
Pasteurella multocida and other species |
Many species of animals, especially dogs, cats, and rabbits |
Worldwide |
Wounds, scratches, bites |
Wound infections, cellulitis, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, sepsis, meningitis |
| Plague (see Plague) |
Yersinia pestis |
Rodents including squirrels, prairie dogs, rats are main reservoir; cats, rabbits; > 200 species of mammals susceptible |
Foci in North and South America, Asia, Middle East, and Africa |
Flea bites, aerosols, handling infected animals (contact with broken skin or mucous membranes), bites or scratches |
Febrile flu-like syndrome with swollen, very painful draining lymph node(s) (buboes); pneumonia; sepsis can occur in either bubonic or pneumonic form; case fatality rate in untreated 50–60% (bubonic) to 100% (pneumonic); < 5% mortality if treated early |
| Psittacosis and ornithosis (see Avian Chlamydiosis) |
Chlamydophila psittaci |
Psittacine birds (especially parakeets, cockatiels), pigeons, turkeys, ducks, geese, and other domestic or wild birds |
Worldwide |
Inhalation of respiratory secretions or dried feces |
Influenza-like febrile illness with nonproductive cough that may progress to pneumonia, endocarditis, myocarditis, sepsis; case fatality rate 15–20% in untreated, <1% with treatment |
| Rat bite fever |
Streptobacillus moniliformis |
Rodents; also transmitted by dogs, cats, ferrets, which are probably infected from rodents |
Worldwide |
Bites and scratches; handling or kissing a rodent, exposure to rodent urine; can be waterborne or foodborne; aerosol transmission possible |
Fever, severe myalgia and joint pain, headache, rash, sometimes GI signs; complications including polyarthritis, hepatitis, endocarditis, focal abscesses, sepsis possible if untreated; overall case fatality rate 10–13% if untreated |
|
Spirillum minus |
Rodents; also transmitted by dogs, cats, ferrets, which are probably infected from rodents |
Worldwide, but organism is common only in Asia |
Mainly bites and scratches |
As above, but indurated, often ulcerated lesion at inoculation site; can relapse; some have distinctive rash (large violaceous or reddish macules); polyarthritis is rare; overall case fatality rate 7–10% if untreated |
| Salmonellosis (see Salmonellosis) |
Salmonella enterica and S bongori, (> 2,500 serovars) |
Poultry, swine, cattle, horses, dogs, cats, wild mammals and birds, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans |
Worldwide |
Foodborne infection or fecal-oral; some cases of occupational and recreational exposure |
Gastroenteritis to sepsis; focal infections possible; especially severe in the elderly, young children, or immunocompromised |
| Streptococcal infections |
Streptococcus spp, including S suis, S equi zooepidemicus, S canis, and S iniae |
S suis in swine; S equi zooepidemicus in horses; S canis in dogs and other species; S iniae in fish; occasionally in other animals |
Worldwide |
Ingestion especially of unpasteurized dairy products, pork; direct contact often through broken skin; the human pathogen S pyogenes can also colonize bovine udder and be transmitted in milk |
Pharyngitis, cellulitis, pneumonia, meningitis, arthritis, endocarditis, streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, sepsis |
| Tetanus (see Clostridial Diseases: Tetanus) |
Clostridium tetani |
Principally herbivores, but all animals may be intestinal carriers |
Worldwide |
Wound infection and injections; most cases from soil but feces can also contain organism |
Muscle spasms and contractions (especially facial), seizures, high mortality; can be localized before generalization; case fatality rate was 90% in USA in 1947, but effective treatment can greatly reduce mortality |
| Tuberculosis (see alsomycobacteriosis, above, see Tuberculosis and other Mycobacterial Infections, see Tuberculosis.) |
Mycobacterium bovis |
Cattle, bison, African buffalo, deer, opossums, badgers, kudu can be reservoirs; swine and many other mammals can be spillover hosts |
Was once worldwide but eradicated or rare in some countries |
Ingestion (unpasteurized dairy products, undercooked meat including bushmeat), inhalation, contamination of breaks in the skin |
Skin lesions, cervical lymphadenitis (scrofula), pulmonary disease; genitourinary disease; can affect bones and joints, meninges; gastroenteritis |
| Tularemia (see Tularemia) |
Francisella tularensis Type A (F tularensis tularensis) virulent, type B (F tularensis holarctica) less virulent |
Rabbits, rodents, cats, sheep, other mammals, birds, reptiles, fish; often in wild animals |
Type A in North America; Type B in North America, Europe, Asia |
Contact with mucous membranes, broken skin; insect bites; fomites; ingestion in food or water; inhalation |
Fever, headache, malaise; ulcerative skin lesions, pharyngitis, adenitis, conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, pneumonia, sepsis; case fatality rate 5% (localized disease, untreated) to 35% (untreated typhoidal form) |
| Vibriosis |
Vibrio parahaemolyticus |
Marine and estuarine shellfish, fish |
Worldwide |
Ingestion; wound infections |
Gastroenteritis; dysentery (especially in some geographic regions); wound infections, especially serious in diabetics; septicemia, usually in immunocompromised or those with liver disease (case fatality rate for sepsis 29%) |
|
V vulnificus |
Marine shellfish, shrimp, prawns, fish |
Worldwide |
Ingestion (often raw oysters); wound infection from water or handling hosts |
Wound infections from mild, self-limited lesions, bullae to cellulitis, myositis; necrotizing fasciitis; gastroenteritis; sepsis, usually in immunocrompromised or those with liver disease, other debilitating illnesses (case fatality rate for sepsis >50%) |
| Vibriosis (continued) |
V cholerae O1/O139 (epidemic strains) |
Oysters, crabs, shrimp, mussels; most cases acquired from humans |
Worldwide; rare/absent to epidemic (in some developing countries); one focus along US Gulf Coast in shellfish |
Ingestion |
Mild to severe, voluminous diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration; severe cases are deadly if untreated, but low mortality if treated |
|
V cholerae Non-O1/O139 (non-epidemic strains) |
Oysters, other seafood |
Worldwide |
Ingestion; wound infection |
Gastroenteritis, usually mild and self-limited; wound infections; septicemia, usually in immunosuppressed or those with liver disease (case fatality rate for sepsis 47–60% or higher |
| Yersiniosis |
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis |
Many species of mammals including swine, dogs, cats, rodents, wild mammals, birds, reptiles |
Agent probably worldwide; most human cases in Europe, temperate parts of Asia |
Ingestion of water, food (including meat especially pork, vegetables); fecal-oral; dog bite (rare) |
Mesenteric adenitis, mimicking appendicitis, gastroenteritis, fever, rash, pharyngitis, “strawberry tongue;” fever, scarlatiniform rash and acute polyarthritis; septicemia (rare), often in elderly or immunocompromised |
|
Y enterocolitica; not all serotypes are pathogenic |
Many domestic and wild mammals; some birds, reptiles, amphibians; zoonotic serotypes most common in pigs, dogs, cats |
Worldwide |
Ingestion |
Gastroenteritis with watery diarrhea in young children, bloody stools uncommon; pseudoappendicitis in older children, adolescents; erythema nodosum in adults may follow gastroenteritis; arthritis, sepsis |
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| Rickettsial Diseases |
| Granulocytic ehrlichiosis |
Ehrlichia ewingii |
Dogs, possibly deer |
Southeastern and south central USA |
Ticks including Amblyomma americanum |
Few cases described; fever, headache, malaise, myalgia, nausea, vomiting; many patients were immunosuppressed |
| Human monocytic ehrlichiosis (see Rickettsial Diseases: Ehrlichiosis and Related Infections) |
Ehrlichia chaffeensis |
Deer, dogs and other canids, goats, lemurs, other mammals may also be reservoirs |
Worldwide |
Ticks including Amblyomma americanum |
Asymptomatic to nonspecific febrile illness, rash; may progress to prolonged fever, renal failure, respiratory distress, hemorrhages, cardiomyopathy, neurologic signs, multiorgan failure; estimated case fatality rate 3% (often in immunosuppressed) |
| Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (formerly human granulocytic ehrlichiosis) |
Anaplasma phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia phagocytophilum and E equi) |
Deer, equids, dogs, cats, llamas, cattle, sheep, goats, non-human primates, rodents, rabbits, other mammals; birds |
Worldwide |
Tick (Ixodes spp) bites |
Resembles human monocytic ehrlichiosis; often asymptomatic to mild in immunocompetent; rash uncommon; estimated case fatality rate <1% |
| Q fever (Query fever, see Q Fever) |
Coxiella burnetii |
Sheep, cattle, goats, cats, dogs, rodents, other mammals, birds, ticks |
Worldwide |
Mainly airborne; exposure to placenta, birth tissues, animal excreta; occasionally ingestion (including unpasteurized milk); tick-borne infections probably rare or nonexistent in humans |
Febrile influenza-like illness; atypical pneumonia, hepatitis, endocarditis in some; possible pregnancy complications; overall case fatality rate 1–2% if untreated |
| Sennetsu fever |
Neorickettsia sennetsu |
Uncertain |
Japan, Malaysia, possibly other Asian Countries |
|
Relatively mild, resembles infectious mononucleosis; fever, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly malaise, anorexia, sometimes chills, fatigue, myalgia |
| Spotted fever group of Rickettsia |
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| —African tick bite fever |
Rickettsia africae |
Cattle, goats |
Sub-Saharan Africa, West Indies |
Bite of infected tick (mainly Amblyomma hebraeum, A variegatum, also A lepidum, possibly Rhipicephalus decoloratus) |
Painful regional lymphadenopathy in many; eschars often multiple; fever common; nuchal myalgia; sometimes sparse and/or vesicular rash; deaths do not seem to occur |
| —Boutonneuse fever; Tick bite fever; Mediterranean spotted fever |
R conorii, related Rickettsia spp |
Dogs, rodents, other animals |
Europe, Asia, Africa, Middle East |
Bite of infected ticks (often Rhipicephalus or Haemaphysalis spp), crushing tick |
Eschar may or may not be present; localized lymphadenitis; rash often maculopapular; life-threatening disseminated disease or neurologic signs uncommon; case fatality rate 1–2.5% if untreated |
| —Fleaborne spotted fever; Cat flea typhus |
R felis (synonym ELB agent) |
Unknown; emerging disease |
North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, probably worldwide |
Flea bites; has been associated with Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea), C canis (dog flea), Pulex irritans |
Few clinical cases have been described but resembles other spotted fevers; eschar, febrile illness, rash; CNS involvement in some |
| —Queensland tick typhus |
R australis |
Bandicoots, rodents, possibly dogs |
Australia |
Bite of infected Ixodes tick |
Similar to Boutonneuse fever (see above); mild in most, but serious disseminated disease with renal and pulmonary complications, death possible |
| —Rickettsial pox |
R akari |
Mice, rats |
USA, Africa, Asia, Ukraine, Croatia, Turkey; possibly southern Europe, Central America; rare |
Bite of infected rodent mites, Liponyssoides spp |
Eschar, febrile illness; vesicular rash, resembles chickenpox; self-limiting |
| —Rocky Mountain spotted fever (see Rickettsial Diseases: Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever) |
R rickettsii |
Rabbits, field mice, rats, opossums, squirrels, chipmunks, other small mammals, dogs |
Western hemisphere |
Bite of infected ticks, especially Dermacentor variabilis, D andersoni in USA; Rhipicephalus spp and Amblyomma spp implicated in Mexico and South America; also from crushing tick |
Febrile illness; macular to generalized petechial rash; neurologic, pulmonary, and kidney signs in some; sepsis; gangrene; case fatality rate 15–30% or higher if untreated |
| —Tickborne lymphadenopathy; Dermacentor-necrosis-erythema-lymphadenopathy |
R slovaca |
Uncertain; wild boar may be involved |
Europe to Central Asia |
Bites of infected ticks; especially Dermacentor marginatus, D reticulatus |
Eschar, local lymphadenopathy; localized alopecia at bite site; fever and rash uncommon |
| —Other tickborne species in spotted fever group |
R parkeri, R sibirica, R japonica, R honei, R heilongjiangensis, R aeschlimannii, others |
Various vertebrates |
Worldwide; distribution varies by species |
Bites of ixodid (hard) ticks; specific vector varies by species |
Inoculation site eschar (most); febrile illness with headache, myalgia, sometimes other signs; rash; local lymphadenopathy (some species); major signs, risk of complications, severity vary with species of Rickettsia |
| Typhus group of Rickettsia |
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| —Murine typhus; Flea-borne typhus |
Rickettsia typhi(R mooseri) and related species |
Rats, cats, opposums; other species can also be infected |
Worldwide |
Infected rodent fleas, possibly cat fleas |
Fever, severe headache, central rash, arthralgia, cough, nausea/vomiting; mortality rate 4% without treatment |
| —Scrub typhus; Chigger-borne rickettsiosis |
Orientia tsutsugamushi and related species |
Rodents, insectivores |
Asia, Australia, islands of southwestern Pacific Ocean; cases are usually concentrated regionally in “typhus islands” |
Bite of infected larval trombiculid mites (chiggers) |
Eschar in some; rash, headache, fever, painful lymphadenopathy, body aches, interstitial pneumonitis, pneumonia, neurologic signs or cardiac complications in some; mild to severe; convalescence prolonged; case fatality rate 35–50% if untreated |
| —Typhus |
R prowazekii |
Flying squirrels |
Eastern USA |
Squirrel lice or fleas suspected |
Fever, headache, muscle aches, rash; GI signs in some; sepsis possible; appears to be somewhat milder than non-zoonotic typhus, which has a mortality rate of 20–40% if untreated |
|
|
| Fungal Diseases |
| Aspergillosis; Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (see Aspergillosis) |
Aspergillus spp |
Birds and mammals |
Worldwide |
Environmental exposure (decaying vegetation or grains); infection common to humans and animals, insignificant as zoonosis |
Allergic respiratory signs, especially in people with asthma or cystic fibrosis; allergic sinusitis; pneumonia with dissemination in immunocompromised (can be fatal); chronic pulmonary disease ± aspergilloma (fungus ball) |
| Blastomycosis (see Fungal Infections: Blastomycosis) |
Blastomyces dermatitidis |
Dogs, cats, horses, sea mammals; other mammals |
Worldwide; focal distribution |
Environmental exposure most common (moist soil); infection common to humans and animals; also reported rarely by animal exposure |
Acute to chronic pulmonary disease; skin or bone lesions; meningitis, other syndromes, disseminated disease possible; some cases fatal |
| Coccidioidomycosis (see Fungal Infections: Coccidioidomycosis) |
Coccidioides immitis |
Cattle, sheep, horses, llamas, dogs, many other mammals |
Southwestern USA, Mexico, Central and South America; in arid or semiarid foci |
Principally environmental exposure (inhalation of arthrospores) including fungal cultures; infection common to humans and animals, one unusual case reported after autopsy of horse with disseminated disease |
Self-limited febrile flu-like illness, sometimes with cough, chest pain in healthy host; serious, possibly life-threatening pulmonary disease or disseminated infection with cutaneous/subcutaneous lesions, persistent meningitis or osteomyelitis, especially in immunocompromised |
| Cryptococcosis (see Fungal Infections: Cryptococcosis) |
Cryptococcus neoformans var grubii, C neoformans var neoformans, C neoformans var gattii |
Birds including pigeons, psittacines; cats, other mammals |
Worldwide |
Principally environmental exposure, especially pigeon nests; via inhalation or through the skin; infection common to humans and animals, insignificant as zoonosis |
Pulmonary granulomas, usually self-limiting in healthy host; skin lesions; CNS disease and dissemination most often in immunocompromised |
| Histoplasmosis (see Fungal Infections: Histoplasmosis) |
Histoplasma capsulatum var capsulatum |
Dogs, cats, bats, cattle, sheep, horses, many other domestic and wild mammals |
Worldwide |
Principally environmental exposure, avian or bat feces encourage growth of organism; infection common to humans and animals; insignificant as zoonosis |
Flu-like, febrile illness, usually self-limiting in healthy hosts; skin lesions; chronic pulmonary disease, usually with pre-existing lung disease; dissemination in very young, elderly, immunocompromised |
|
H capsulatum var duboisii |
As above |
Africa |
As above |
Usually skin and subcutaneous lesions, osteolytic bone lesions, but can disseminate |
| Malassezia dermatitis |
Malassezia spp |
Dogs, cats, other animals |
Worldwide |
Exposure to symptomatic animals; normal levels on skin not thought to be a risk |
Exfoliative dermatitis |
| Ringworm (Dermatophytosis, see Dermatophytosis) |
Microsporum and Trichophyton spp |
Dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, rodents, other animals |
Worldwide |
Direct skin/hair contact with infected animals, fomites |
Skin and hair lesions, usually pruritic; rare skin dissemination in immunocompromised |
| Sporotrichosis (see Fungal Infections: Sporotrichosis) |
Sporothrix schenckii |
Horses, cats, other mammals, birds |
Worldwide |
Primarily environmental in vegetation, wood, soil; inoculation from environment in penetrating wounds (splinters, thorns, bites, pecks) skin contact with lesions, especially in cats; inhalation rare |
Papules, pustules, nodules, ulcerative skin lesions, may follow course of draining lymphatics; disseminated disease can occur in immunocompromised; acute or chronic pulmonary disease resembling tuberculosis after inhalation, especially with underlying lung disease (rare) |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Protozoans |
| Babesiosis (see Blood Parasites: Babesiosis) |
Babesia microti complex, B duncani (formerly WA-1), and possibly other species |
Rodents, insectivores, some other mammals |
B microti worldwide; B duncani in Asia, Africa, North America |
Bite of infected Ixodes ticks |
Fever, myalgia, fatigue; mild to severe hemolytic anemia, especially severe in immunocompromised and elderly; recurrent or chronic infection may develop; dual infection with B burgdorferi may worsen both diseases; death uncommon |
|
B divergens |
Cattle; B divergens or closely related organism in reindeer, other mammals |
Europe, possibly North Africa |
Tick (Ixodes ricinus) bites |
Usually in splenectomized; acute, severe hemolysis; persistent high fever, headache, myalgia, abdominal pain, sometimes GI signs; shock and renal failure; cases progress rapidly; case fatality rate 40% with effective treatment, usually fatal if untreated |
|
B bovis; uncertain zoonosis; some historical cases were probably B divergens |
Cattle, water buffalo, African buffalo, possibly other species |
Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Mexico, Australia, parts of Europe |
Tick (Rhipicephalus microplus and R annulatus) bites |
|
| Balantidiasis |
Balantidium coli and related species |
Swine, rats, nonhuman primates, other animals |
Worldwide; low incidence |
Ingestion, especially of water contaminated with feces |
Asymptomatic to mucoid, bloody stool; intestinal hemorrhage and perforation possible; rare extrain-testinal cases |
| Chagas’ disease (American trypanosomiasis, see Blood Parasites: Chagas’ Disease) |
Trypanosoma cruzi |
Opossums, lagomorphs, rodents, armadillos, dogs, cats, other wild and domestic mammals |
Western hemisphere—Southern USA, Mexico, Central and South America |
Fecal material of reduviid bug in family Triatomidae contaminates bite wounds, abrasions, or mucous membranes |
Acute disease—erratic fever, adenopathy, headache, myalgia, hepatosplenomegaly, swelling at inoculation site and eyelid; myocarditis, or encephalitis in some; worse in immunocompromised
Chronic form (in 10–30% of patients)—cardiomyopathy, megaesophagus, megacolon, other forms; reported annual mortality rate in chronic form 0.2%–19% (higher rates from studies that include only cardiac patients) |
| Cryptosporidiosis (see Cryptosporidiosis) |
Cryptosporidium parvum; less often C canis, C felis, C meleagridis, C muris, and other species; (C hominis is adapted mainly to humans) |
Cattle and other ruminants (C parvum), other domestic and wild mammals, birds (C meleagridis), reptiles, fish |
Worldwide |
Fecal-oral; ingestion of contaminated food and water; inhalation |
Self-limiting gastroenteritis in healthy; can be cholera-like and persistent in immunocompromised, with weight loss, wasting; cholecystitis; respiratory signs, mainly in immunosuppressed |
| Giardiasis (see Giardiasis) |
Giardia intestinalis (also known as G lamblia) |
Many domestic and wild mammals including dogs, cats, ruminants, beavers, porcupines |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of water and less often food; fecal-oral (hands or fomites) |
Gastroenteritis, may be persistent |
| Leishmaniosis
—Visceral (Kalaazar see Leishmaniosis) |
Leishmania donovani, Leishmania infantum and other species |
Wild canids and dogs, cats, horses, rodents; humans are main reservoir in India |
Asia, South America, Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East, Mediterranean coast, North America |
Bite of sand flies Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia spp |
Undulating fever, hepatosplenomegaly; some have cough, diarrhea, lymphadenopathy, weight loss, petechiae or hemorrhages on mucous membranes, nodular lesions or darkening of skin; pancytopenia; almost always fatal if untreated; case fatality rate 10% or higher in treated |
| —Cutaneous and mucocutaneous |
L tropica complex, L braziliensis complex, L mexicana complex, others |
Canids, horses, cats, marsupials, sloths, wild mammals, rodents |
Mediterranean, Asia, Africa, Middle East, Mexico to South America, Caribbean |
As above |
Papules to ulcers or nodules on skin ± mucous membranes; single or multiple lesions; localized or disseminated; may persist or recur; atypical forms in immunosuppressed |
| Malaria of nonhuman primates |
At least 20 species of Plasmodium including P knowlesi; all may not be zoonotic |
Old and New World monkeys, apes |
Central and South America, Asia, Africa |
Bite of Anopheline mosquitoes |
Fever, chills; headache, myalgia, malaise, cough, nausea, vomiting and other symptoms in some; some cases fatal |
| Microsporidiosis |
Microsporidia of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, E intestinalis, E hellem, others |
Widespread in vertebrates including primates, rabbits, rodents, dogs, cattle, pigs, goats, birds, fish; also in invertebrates |
Worldwide |
Fecal-oral; direct contact; ingestion of contaminated food or water; aerosols; possibly vector-transmitted |
Keratitis; acute diarrhea (traveler’s diarrhea); chronic diarrhea in immunocompromised; may disseminate to systemic disease with variable symptoms in immunocompromised |
| Rhinosporidiosis (see Fungal Infections: Rhinosporidiosis) |
Rhinosporidium seeberi; some strains may be host specific |
Horses, cattle, mules, dogs, cats, and birds |
Worldwide, endemic in South Asia and Africa |
Environmental exposure (unidentified reservoirs) |
Nasal and other mucous membrane masses and polyps; may cause obstruction; rare disseminated disease with osteolytic lesions or affecting viscera; rare skin and subcutaneous lesions |
| Sarcocystosis (Sarcosporidiosis, see Sarcocystosis) |
Sarcocystis suihominis |
Humans, nonhuman primates are definitive hosts; swine are intermediate host |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of raw pork |
Gastroenteritis, usually mild, or asymptomatic |
| Sarcocystosis (continued) |
S hominis |
Humans, nonhuman primates are definitive hosts; cattle are intermediate host |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of raw beef |
Gastroenteritis, usually mild or asymptomatic |
|
Sarcocystis spp |
Humans are intermediate host; species of Sarcocystis and definitive host(s) are often unknown |
Worldwide; symptomatic cases mainly Asia, probably due to distribution of definitive host |
Assumed to be ingestion of oocysts or sporocysts shed in feces of definitive host(s) |
Main syndrome is myositis, acute and self-limited to chronic, moderately severe; also cough, arthralgia, transient pruritic rashes, headache, malaise, lymphadenopathy in some |
| Toxoplasmosis (see Toxoplasmosis) |
Toxoplasma gondii |
Felidae including domestic cat are definitive hosts; birds and mammals including sheep, goats, swine, and humans are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of oocysts shed in feces of infected cats (including contaminated soil, food, water) or ingestion of tissue cysts in undercooked meat or unpasteurized milk |
Lymphadenopathy or mild, febrile, flu-like syndrome or uveitis in immunocompetent, nonpregnant host; often severe in immunocompromised, with neurologic disease, chorioretinitis, myocarditis, pneumonitis or disseminated disease; infection of fetus may result in CNS damage or generalized infection; abortions and stillbirths |
| Trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness, see Blood Parasites: Trypanosomiasis) |
Trypanosoma brucei;T brucei rhodesiense is zoonotic; T brucei gambiense is primarily a human pathogen, although some animals can be infected |
T brucei rhodesiense reservoirs include cattle, sheep, antelope, hyenas, lions, humans; also isolated from other mammals |
Africa; common below the Sahara desert |
Bite of infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp) |
Painful chancre at bite site; intermittent fever, headache, adenopathy, rash, arthralgia; neurologic signs such as somnolence, seizures; cardiac complications possible; gambiense disease may last years; rhodesiense disease may last weeks; both usually fatal without treatment |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Trematodes (Flukes) |
| Clonorchiasis |
Clonorchis sinensis (Chinese liver fluke) |
Dogs, cats, swine, rats, other mammals are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
Asia |
Ingestion of undercooked infected freshwater fish or shrimp containing encysted larvae |
Cholecystitis symptoms, indigestion, diarrhea, mild fever; chronic infections associated with cirrhosis, pancreatitis or cholangiocarcinoma |
| Dicrocoeliasis |
Dicrocoelium dendriticum, rarely D hospes (lancet flukes) |
Ruminants especially sheep, goats, cattle, occasionally other mammals are definitive hosts; land snails (1st) and ants (2nd) are intermediate hosts |
D dendriticum worldwide; D hospes in Africa south of Sahara desert |
Ingestion of infected ants |
Abdominal discomfort, flatulent indigestion; occasionally alternating diarrhea/constipation, vomiting, pain |
| Echinostomiasis |
Echinostoma ilocanum, E hortense, and other Echinostoma spp; Echinochasmus japonicus and other members of Echinostomatidae can also be zoonotic |
Cats, dogs, rodents, other mammals; birds (ducks, geese, fowl) are definitive hosts; fish, shellfish, tadpoles, snails are intermediate hosts |
Most human cases in Asia, Western Pacific; parasites are widely distributed including Europe, Americas |
Ingestion of undercooked fish, shellfish, snails or amphibians (frogs) |
Abdominal discomfort; diarrhea, especially in heavy infestation; anemia, edema may occur in children |
| Fascioliasis |
Fasciola hepatica |
Cattle, sheep, water buffalo, horses, rabbits, other herbivores are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide or nearly worldwide; in temperate areas |
Ingestion of contaminated greens, eg, watercress, or water that contains metacercariae |
Gastroenteritis, hepatomegaly, fever, urticaria possible acutely; biliary colic and obstructive jaundice in chronic cases; aberrant migration with extrahepatic signs (pulmonary infiltrates, meningitis, lymphadenopathy, skin lesions or subcutaneous swelling) in some |
|
F gigantica |
Cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, zebras, other mammals are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Mainly in tropical areas: Africa, Asia, Middle East and western Pacific |
As above |
Signs resemble fascioliasis caused by F hepatica |
| Fasciolopsiasis |
Fasciolopsis buski |
Swine, humans are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Asian pig-raising regions |
Ingestion of aquatic vegetables or contaminated drinking water containing metacercariae |
Often asymptomatic; gastroenteritis; intestinal obstruction possible; facial, abdominal, extremity edema may occur |
| Gastrodiscoidiasis |
Gastrodiscoides hominis; uncertain whether humans and swine carry the same strains |
Swine, humans, nonhuman primates, rodents, other mammals are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Asia (including the Philippines), Africa |
Possibly ingestion of water or aquatic plants |
Mild diarrhea if high parasite burden |
| Heterophyiasis |
Heterophyes spp and other heterophids |
Cats, dogs, foxes, wolves, fish-eating birds are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
Middle East (especially Nile delta), Turkey, Asia |
Ingestion of undercooked fish containing encysted larvae |
Diarrhea with mucus, colicky pain; heart or CNS involvement possible |
| Metagonimiasis |
Metagonimus yokogawai and other Metagonimus spp |
Cats, dogs, rats, other fish-eating mammals, pelicans are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
Asia, Europe, Siberia |
Ingestion of undercooked freshwater fish containing encysted larvae |
Diarrhea with mucus, anorexia, mild epigastric pain or abdominal cramps; malabsorption, weight loss if high parasite burden |
| Metorchiasis |
Metorchis conjunctus, Canadian liver fluke |
Dogs, foxes and other canids, cats, raccoons, muskrats, mink, other fish-eating mammals are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
North America; human infection rare |
Ingestion of undercooked freshwater fish containing encysted larvae |
Fever, abdominal pain (mainly epigastric), anorexia during acute stage; effects of chronic infection uncertain |
| Nanophyetiasis |
Troglotrema salmincola (synonym Nanophyetus salmincola) |
Raccoons, foxes, dogs, cats, skunks, and other fish-eating mammals and birds are definitive hosts; salmonid and non-salmonid fish (and snails) are intermediate host |
North America along Pacific coast, Russia |
Ingestion of undercooked fish or roe |
Mild gastroenteritis |
| Opisthorchiasis |
Opisthorchis felineus (cat liver fluke) |
Cats, dogs, foxes, swine, seals, other fish-eating mammals are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
Europe, Asia, Siberia |
Ingestion of undercooked freshwater fish containing encysted larvae |
Acute febrile illness with arthralgia, lymphadenopathy, skin rash; suppurative cholangitis and liver abscess in subacute, chronic stages; possible increased risk of cholangiocarcinoma |
|
O viverrini (small liver fluke) |
Dogs, cats, rats, pigs, fish-eating mammals are definitive hosts; fish (and snails) are intermediate hosts |
Southeast Asia |
Ingestion of undercooked freshwater fish containing encysted larvae |
Upper abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, jaundice possible acutely; chronic infections with cirrhosis, pancreatitis, high incidence of cholangiocarcinoma |
|
Amphimerus pseudofelineus |
Dogs, cats, coyotes, opossums are definitive hosts; fish suspected as intermediate hosts |
North and South America |
Undetermined, but probably ingestion of intermediate host |
|
| Paragonimiasis (Lung fluke disease) |
Paragonimus westermani, P heterotremus, P africanus, P mexicanus, and other species |
Dogs, cats, swine, wild carnivores, opposums, and other mammals are definitive hosts; snails and freshwater crustaceans are intermediate hosts; wild boars, sheep, goats, rabbits, birds, other animals are paratenic hosts |
Flukes are worldwide (distribution varies with species); most human infections in Asia, Africa, tropical America |
Ingestion of undercooked, infected freshwater crustaceans (crabs, crayfish); or metacercariae on contaminated hands, fomites after preparing crustaceans; or undercooked meat from paratenic hosts such as wild boars |
Chills, fever possible during migration to lungs; pulmonary disease resembling tuberculosis; with cough, blood-tinged sputum; abdominal form with dull pain, tenderness, possibly diarrhea; less often, neurologic signs, migratory skin nodules, other organ-specific symptoms; predominant signs vary with species of fluke |
| Schistosomiasis, intestinal and hepatic |
Schistosoma japonicum |
Many mammals including cattle, water buffalo, swine, dogs, cats, deer, rodents are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
China, Indonesia, Philippines |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Acute disease (Katayama fever), especially after first infection; febrile illness, sometimes with cough, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hepatosplenomegaly and/or rash/urticaria; apparent clinical recovery may be followed by chronic intestinal schistosomiasis with abdominal pain/discomfort, diarrhea with or without blood; chronic hepatic schistosomiasis with hepatosplenomegaly followed by liver fibrosis, ascites, portal hypertension with hematemesis and/or melena, portocaval shunting with pulmonary signs; ectopic parasites can cause seizures, paralysis, meningoencephalitis; intestinal and hepatic lesions tend to progress rapidly; death can occur |
|
S mansoni |
Humans, nonhuman primates are major reservoir (definitive) hosts; also in rodents, insectivores, cattle, dogs; snails are intermediate hosts |
Africa, Middle East, South America, Caribbean |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Acute disease in some; intestinal and hepatic schistosomiasis similar to S japonicum, but not as rapidly progressive; glomerulonephritis a possible complication; ectopic CNS parasites tend to cause transverse myelitis; also causes genital schistosomiasis with reproductive problems; death can occur |
|
S mattheei |
Cattle, sheep, goats, waterbuck, wildebeest, antelope, buffalo, other mammals are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Southern Africa |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Intestinal and hepatic schistosomiasis; death can occur |
|
S mekongi |
Humans are reservoir (definitive) hosts; also found in dogs, pigs; snails are intermediate hosts |
Southeast Asia |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Acute disease absent or very rare; intestinal and hepatic schistosomiasis; death can occur |
|
S intercalatum |
Cattle, sheep, antelope, goats, primates, rats are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Central Africa |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Intestinal schistosomiasis only, often mild or asymptomatic; occasionally bloody feces, diarrhea |
| Schistosomiasis, urinary |
S haematobium |
Humans are the main reservoir (definitive host); occasionally infects nonhuman primates, pigs, sheep, rodents, or other mammals; snails are intermediate hosts |
Africa (including Madagascar, Mauritius), the Middle East |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in water |
Acute disease in some; chronic disease—hematuria, dysuria, kidney failure; calcification of bladder wall, ureter, and bladder can lead to bladder cancer; ectopic CNS parasites tend to cause transverse myelitis; genital schistosomiasis; death can occur |
| Swimmer’s itch (Cercarial dermatitis) |
Schistosome cercariae from Schistosoma spp (mammals); Gigantobilharzia, Trichobilharzia, and Austrobilharzia spp (birds) |
Birds, mammals are definitive hosts; snails are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Penetration of unbroken skin by cercariae from infected snails in fresh- and saltwater |
Self-limiting urticaria, pruritus, rash |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Cestodes (Tapeworms) |
| Bertielliasis |
Bertiella studeri, B mucronata |
Nonhuman primates are usual hosts; other mammals including dogs, humans can be infected |
Asia, South America, Africa; can occur in imported primates in other areas |
Ingestion of infected oribatid mites in food |
Most cases asymptomatic; abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, weight loss |
| Coenuriasis (Coenurosis) |
Taenia multiceps |
Definitive hosts are canids; intermediate hosts are sheep, other herbivores |
Worldwide in scattered foci |
Ingestion of tapeworm eggs in canine feces, may be via water, vegetables, soil |
Painless skin swelling; possible CNS involvement (signs of mass lesion in brain) or larva in eye |
|
T serialis |
Definitive hosts are canids; intermediate hosts are lagomorphs, occasionally other mammals |
Africa, Europe, North America; rare in humans |
As above |
Painless skin swelling; also in muscles and retroperitoneally; CNS involvement possible |
|
T brauni |
Definitive hosts are canids; intermediate hosts are gerbils, wild rodents, also humans |
Africa |
As above |
Most often in subcutaneous tissues (skin swelling) or eye |
| Cysticercosis |
Taenia solium (see also Taeniasis) |
Humans are definitive hosts; swine, other mammals are intermediate hosts; (humans can be both definitive and intermediate hosts) |
Worldwide where swine are reared; most cases occur in Africa, Asia, Central and South America |
Ingestion of eggs (including autoinfection from adult parasite in human intestine) |
Inflammation in CNS caused by death of larva (years after infection) can cause seizures, other CNS signs; less often in eye or heart |
|
T crassiceps |
Foxes, occasionally other canids are definitive hosts; rodents, insectivores, occasionally other mammals are intermediate hosts |
North America, Europe, and other areas where foxes are present |
Ingestion of eggs |
Very rare; one case involved only the eye; one resembled tumor in arm; one paravertebral pseudohematoma with local bleeding |
| Diphyllobothriasis (Fish tapeworm infection) |
Diphyllobothrium latum (Dibothriocephalus latus), D pacificum, D dendriticum, and other Diphyllobothrium spp |
Dogs, bears, seals, sea lions, gulls, and other fish-eating mammals and birds are definitive hosts; freshwater or marine fish (and copepods) are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of undercooked infected fish |
Usually asymptomatic; may cause mild abdominal distress; rare megaloblastic anemia |
| Dipylidiasis(Dog tapeworm infection) |
Dipylidium caninum |
Dogs, cats are definitive hosts; fleas are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of dog or cat fleas |
Usually in children; asymptomatic or mild abdominal distress; proglottids in stool resemble cucumber seeds |
| Echinococcosis |
Echinococcus granulosus |
Dogs, hyenas, and other canids are definitive hosts; sheep, cattle, swine, rodents, deer, moose, other mammals are either intermediate or aberrant hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of tapeworm eggs in food, water; to mouth on hands; eggs stick to fur and hands |
Cause space-occupying lesions of organs, especially lung, liver, also other organs, rarely CNS; cyst grows slowly, can cause death if untreated |
|
E multilocularis |
Dog, cats, wild canids and felids are definitive hosts; many species of small mammals including microtine rodents, insectivores are intermediate hosts |
North America (Canada to northern states of USA), northern and central Eurasia |
Ingestion of tapeworm eggs in food, water; to mouth on hands; eggs stick to fur and hands |
Usually involves liver with mass lesions, occasionally lung or CNS; primary lesion can metastasize to many organs; very serious, 29% survive 10 yr after diagnosis if untreated, few/none survive 15 yr |
| Echinococcosis |
E oligarthrus |
Wild felids are definitive hosts; agouti, pacas, spiny rats are intermediate hosts |
Central and South America; rare in humans |
Ingestion of tapeworm eggs in food, water; to mouth on hands; eggs stick to fur and hands |
Has occurred in a variety of internal organs, eyes |
|
E vogeli |
Bush dogs and dogs are definitive hosts; agouti, pacas, nonhuman primates are intermediate hosts |
Central and South America |
Ingestion of tapeworm eggs in food, water; to mouth on hands; eggs stick to fur and hands |
Usually involves liver, may invade adjacent tissues; mortality high in advanced cases, even with treatment (22% in one study) |
| Hymenolepiasis |
Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm); most human infections probably from strains adapted to humans, but zoonoses possible |
Humans, nonhuman primates, rodents are definitive hosts; insects including fleas, flour beetles, cereal beetles are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Accidental ingestion of tapeworm eggs or infected insects; autoinfection possible |
Mainly in children; mild abdominal distress, decreased appetite, irritability are most common; weight loss, flatulence, diarrhea possible |
|
H diminuta (mouse tapeworm, rat tapeworm) |
Rats, mice are definitive hosts; insects including fleas and cereal beetles are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of infected insects in food |
Mild abdominal symptoms of short duration |
| Inermicapsifer infection |
Inermicapsifer madagascariensis |
Rodents, humans are definitive hosts in Africa; humans may be exclusive host outside Africa |
Africa, southeast Asia, tropical America |
Probably ingestion of infected arthropods |
Mild abdominal symptoms, if any |
| Raillietina infection |
Raillietina celebensis, R demerariensis; most Raillietina spp have not been reported in humans |
Rodents, nonhuman primates are definitive hosts for R celebensis, R demerariensis; other species in birds, mammals; arthropods including ants are intermediate hosts |
R demerariensis in tropical America (human cases mainly Ecuador, Cuba, Guyana, Honduras); R celebensis in Asia, Australia, Africa |
Probably ingestion of infected arthropods in food |
Vague discomfort, many asymptomatic; gastroenteritis, possibly other signs; mainly in children |
| Sparganosis |
Spirometra spp (pseudophyllidean tapeworms, second larval stage) |
Dogs, cats, wild canids and felids are definitive hosts; copepods are first intermediate host; primates, pigs, weasels, rodents, insectivores, other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish are second intermediate hosts |
Worldwide; human cases mainly in Thailand |
Ingestion of infected cyclops (in water) or undercooked intermediate host; application of contaminated tissues to skin (eg, as poultice) |
Nodular, itchy skin lesions that can migrate; conjunctival and eyelid lesions; urticaria, painful edema; other organ involvement including CNS |
| Taeniasis |
|
|
|
|
|
| —Asian taeniasis |
Taenia taiwanensis, Taenia asiatica or T saginata asiatica |
Domestic and wild pigs, occasionally cattle, goats, monkeys are intermediate hosts; humans are definitive hosts |
East and southeast Asia, Africa |
Ingestion of undercooked animal products, usually visceral organs such as liver and lung |
Vague abdominal complaints and proglottid passage; anal pruritus; ingestion of eggs followed by larval migration and disseminated disease appears unlikely but has not been ruled out |
| —Beef tapeworm disease |
T saginata |
Cattle, water buffalo, llamas, reindeer, camels, other domestic and wild ruminants are intermediate hosts; humans are definitive host |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of undercooked meat containing larvae |
Mild abdominal discomfort and proglottid passage; gravid proglottids may travel to ectopic sites and cause symptoms; eggs do not cause disseminated disease |
| —Pork tapeworm disease; Cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis |
T solium |
Humans are definitive host; swine, occasionally other mammals including humans are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide where swine are reared; most cases occur in Africa, Asia, Central and South America |
Ingestion of undercooked pork containing larvae causes taeniasis; ingestion of eggs (including autoinfection from adult worm in intestine) causes cysticercosis |
Adult stage in intestine (taeniasis) mild or asymptomatic; cysticercosis usually asymptomatic for years until death of cysticerci result in inflammation in CNS (seizures, other CNS signs) or less often in eye or heart |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Nematodes (Roundworms) |
| Angiostrongyliasis |
Parastrongylus costaricensis |
Cotton rats and other rodents are definitive hosts; slugs are intermediate hosts |
North and South America, Caribbean |
Accidental ingestion of slugs or plants contaminated by their secretions |
Abdominal angiostrongyliasis; resembles appendicitis, especially in children |
|
Angiostrongylus cantonensis |
Rodents (including Rattus and Bandicota spp) are definitive hosts; snails, slugs, and land planarians are intermediate hosts; fish, crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, prawns), amphibians are paratenic hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of undercooked intermediate host, paratenic host, or plant contaminated by the intermediate host’s secretions |
Eosinophilic meningitis or meningoencephalitis, spinal cord involvement; ocular involvement with decreased vision; abdominal pain, pruritus in some; most cases relatively mild and self-limiting, but some fatal |
| Anisakiasis |
Anisakis and Pseudoterranova spp |
Marine mammals (cetaceans and pinnipeds) and fish-eating birds are definitive hosts; fish, crustaceans, and cephalopod mollusks are intermediate or paratenic hosts |
Worldwide, but many cases in northern Asia and western Europe |
Ingestion of undercooked marine fish, squid, octopus |
Gastroenteritis with upper quadrant pain; rarely in sites other than stomach; oropharyngeal worm can cause hematemesis, cough; urticaria and other allergic signs after ingestion of live or dead worms |
| Capillariasis |
|
|
|
|
|
| —Hepatic capillariasis |
Capillaria hepatica, (synonym Calodium hepaticum) |
Rodents, other wild and domestic mammals |
Worldwide in scattered foci |
Ingestion of embryonated eggs in soil |
Acute or subacute hepatitis with marked eosinophilia; subclinical to fatal |
| —Intestinal capillariasis |
C philippinensis |
Aquatic birds, humans can be definitive hosts; freshwater fish are intermediate host |
Philippines, Thailand, east Asia, Middle East |
Ingestion of undercooked infected fish |
Enteropathy with protein loss and malabsorption; diarrhea, abdominal pain |
| —Pulmonary capillariasis |
C aerophila, (synonym Eucoleus aerophilus) |
Dogs, cats, other carnivores |
Worldwide; rare in humans |
Accidental ingestion of infective eggs in soil or contaminated food |
Fever, cough, bronchospasm, bronchitis, dyspnea; can mimic bronchial carcinoma |
| Dioctophymosis (Giant kidney worm infection) |
Dioctophyma renale |
Mink, dogs, and other carnivores are definitive hosts; annelids are intermediate hosts; frogs, fish are paratenic hosts |
Europe, Asia, North and South America; rare |
Ingestion of infected fish or frog’s liver and mesentery |
Renal colic, hematuria, pyuria, ureteral obstruction |
| Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm infection) |
Dracunculus medinensis |
Humans, nonhuman primates, domestic and wild carnivores, horses, cattle are definitive hosts; copepods are intermediate hosts |
Asia (mainly Indian subcontinent) and Africa |
Ingestion of infected cyclops in water |
No symptoms until just before larviposition (~1 yr); papule to vesicular skin lesion to ulcer that opens in water to reveal worm; allergic reaction common at this time and secondary infection may occur |
| Filariasis |
|
|
|
|
|
| —Dirofilariasis |
Dirofilaria immitis |
Dogs, cats, wild mammals especially carnivores, mustelids, primates are definitive hosts; mosquitoes are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide |
Bite of infected mosquitoes |
Fever, cough acutely, resulting in infarct or coin lesion in the lungs; often asymptomatic; rarely involves eye |
|
D tenuis, D repens, possibly other species |
D tenuis in raccoons; D repens in dogs, cats |
D tenuis in North America; D repens in Asia, Europe, Africa |
Bite of infected mosquitoes |
Subcutaneous nodule or submucosal swelling, some migratory and/or painful; subconjunctival; internal location (mainly lung) possible |
| —Malayan filariasis |
Brugia malayi; subperiodic form is zoonotic; periodic form is exclusive to humans |
Cats, wild felids, pangolins, other carnivores, nonhuman primates |
Asia; subperiodic form is limited to peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, and parts of Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines in swamp-forest environments |
Bite of infected mosquitoes, mainly Brugia malayi, Mansonia spp |
Recurrent painful lymphadenitis, lymphangitis, often preceded by prodromal illness with malaise or urticaria; may progress to elephantiasis, usually of legs; hypersensitivity syndrome with cough, chest pain, asthmatic attacks especially at night |
| Gnathostomiasis |
Gnathostoma spinigerum and other Gnathostoma spp |
Dogs, cats, wild carnivores, are definitive hosts; copepods, freshwater fish, frogs, snakes, chickens, snails, pigs are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide; most human cases from Asia; emerging along Pacific coast of Mexico, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina |
Ingestion of undercooked fish, poultry, or other intermediate host, rarely in drinking water |
Fever, malaise, gastroenteritis, urticaria, soon after ingestion; migratory skin lesions (intermittent swelling, often painful or pruritic) after weeks to years; may involve viscera, eye, or CNS |
| Gongylonemiasis |
Gongylonema pulchrum |
Ruminants, domestic and wild swine, other mammals are definitive hosts; beetles, cockroaches are intermediate hosts |
Worldwide; rare in humans |
Ingestion of infected beetles, probably on vegetables; possible inhalation of small beetles |
Movement of parasite in submucosa of mouth is sensed; local irritation; pharyngitis, stomatitis possible |
| Larva migrans, cutaneous (See alsognathostomiasis, above.) |
Ancylostoma braziliense, A caninum, Uncinaria stenocephala |
Cats, dogs, wild carnivores |
Worldwide; distribution varies with the species |
Contact with infective larvae that penetrate skin, usually via soil |
Itchy, serpiginous, migrating skin lesions; papules, nonspecific dermatitis, vesicles; wheezing, cough, and urticaria may occur; myositis or ocular lesions possible; eosinophilic enteritis after ingestion of A caninum |
|
Bunostomum phlebotomum |
Cattle |
Temperate regions |
As above |
As above |
|
Strongyloides stercoralis and other Strongyloides spp found in animals |
S stercoralis in dogs, cats, primates including humans; other species in swine, sheep, goats, cattle, horses, raccoons and other domestic and wild mammals |
Worldwide, more common in tropics and subtropics |
Contact with infective larvae that penetrate skin, from soil or direct contact with feces; autoinfection possible with S stercoralis |
Larva currens (linear, serpiginous urticarial inflammation, often rapidly progressive); S stercoralis may also mature in intestine, causing enteritis and other signs (see below) |
| Larva migrans, visceral (See alsoangiostrongyliasis and anisakiasis, above) |
Toxocara canis, T cati, possibly others |
Dogs and wild canids (T canis), cats (T cati) are definitive hosts; many species can be paratenic hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of embryonated eggs shed in feces of dogs and cats; via soil, water, food, fomites |
Fever, wheezing cough, upper abdominal discomfort; nodular rash on trunk and extremities; may wax and wane for months; eye involvement (ocular migrans) may resemble retinoblastoma |
|
Baylisascaris procyonis |
Raccoons are definitive host; dogs can be definitive or intermediate host; many mammals (including humans) and birds are intermediate hosts |
North America, Europe, Japan |
Accidental ingestion of embryonated eggs in soil, water, or fecal-contaminated material |
Nonspecific signs including fever, lethargy; hepatomegaly, pneumonitis, parasitic meningoencephalitis (may be fatal in infants, young children), ocular disease; other syndromes including cardiac disease |
| Oesophagostomiasis, Ternidensiasis |
Oesophagostomum spp, Ternidens deminutus |
Primates, including humans |
Africa, Asia, South America (Brazil) |
Ingestion of infective larvae in soil, often in food or water |
Abdominal pain (may be right lower quadrant) and one or more masses ± mild fever; intestinal obstruction or abscessation possible; multinodular form (less common) with abdominal pain, persistent diarrhea, weight loss; rarely ectopic in omentum, liver, or skin |
| Strongyloidiasis |
Strongyloides stercoralis (canine and primate-adapted S stercoralis probably exist, and zoonotic infections from dogs may rarely mature in humans) |
S stercoralis in dogs, cats, foxes, primates including humans |
S stercoralis worldwide; more common in tropical and subtropical climates |
Contact with infective larvae that penetrate skin, in soil or direct contact with feces; autoinfection possible |
Frequently asymptomatic in healthy; possible larva currens (seelarva migrans, above); respiratory signs in some (cough to bronchopneumonia) especially in elderly, immunocompromised; abdominal pain, diarrhea, sometimes with periodic urticarial or maculopapular rash; disseminated strongyloidiasis, neurologic complications, septicemia, and death may occur in immunocompromised |
| Strongyloidiasis (continued) |
S fuelleborni |
Primates including humans |
Africa, Asia, and in captive primates in other areas |
As above |
Associated with abdominal pain, occasional diarrhea, not well studied |
| Thelaziasis (Eyeworms) |
Thelazia callipaedia, T californiensis, possibly T rhodesii |
Definitive hosts are dogs and other canids, cats, rabbits (T callipaedia); dogs, wild mammals, occasionally cats, sheep (T californiensis); flies are intermediate hosts |
T callipaedia in Asia, Europe; T californiensis in North America (western USA); rarely in humans |
Flies release parasite larvae on conjunctiva |
Conjunctivitis; corneal scarring, opacity in chronic cases |
| Trichinosis (Trichinellosis) |
Trichinella spiralis and subspecies, T nativa, T britovi, T nelsoni, T pseudospiralis, possibly others |
Main reservoir may be wild carnivores (foxes, badgers, wolves, lynx), omnivores (bears, boars); also in any mammal that eats (or is fed) meat including domestic swine, rodents, cats, dogs, horses, marine mammals; also birds (T pseudospiralis) |
Worldwide, especially subarctic region; some species are limited in their distribution |
Ingestion of undercooked pork, horse meat, game, and other tissues containing viable cysts |
Gastroenteritis in some; followed by fever, headache, severe myalgia, facial swelling (especially eyelids); ocular pain, rashes, or pruritus possible; pneumonitis, CNS, or myocardial involvement can occur; inapparent to fatal |
| Trichostrongyliasis |
Trichostrongylus spp |
Cattle, sheep, other domestic and wild ruminants, sometimes other mammals |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of infective larvae on vegetables or in contaminated water, soil |
Asymptomatic or mild gastroenteritis |
| Trichuriasis (Whipworm infection) |
Trichuris vulpis, T suis, and possibly other species; T spp, T trichiura occurs mainly in humans and zoonotic infections are unusual |
T vulpis in canids; T suis in domestic and wild swine |
Worldwide, especially warm, humid climates |
Ingestion of embryonated eggs on plant foods, water, or in soil |
Asymptomatic or mild to moderate gastroenteritis; bloody diarrhea possible; rarely, larva migrans from T trichiura , T vulpis |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Acanthocephalans |
| Acanthocephaliasis, Macracanthorhynchosis |
Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus and other species |
Hosts vary with parasite species; definitive hosts include domestic and wild pigs, rodents, muskrats, arctic foxes, dogs, sea otters, other terrestrial and marine mammals; intermediate hosts are beetles, cockroaches, crustaceans; fish are paratenic hosts |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of infected beetles, other intermediate hosts, or fish |
Gastroenteritis, may lead to gut perforation or intestinal obstruction; some cases asymptomatic |
|
|
| Parasitic Diseases—Annelids (Leeches) |
| Hirudiniasis (internal) |
Limnatis nilotica and other aquatic leeches |
Cattle, buffalo, other domestic and wild mammals, probably frogs |
Africa, Asia, southern Europe, Middle East |
Drinking unfiltered water (leech enters nares or mouth), wading in deep water (enters genitourinary tract) |
Attaches to nasopharynx, pharynx, esophagus, occasionally deeper in respiratory tract, or in genitourinary tract; pressure and/or pain at attachment site; bleeding (eg, hemoptysis, hematemesis, epistaxis, vaginal bleeding), anemia (can be severe); other signs depend on location, may include persistent headache, cough, dyspnea, chest pain |
|
|
| Arthropod Diseases |
| Acariasis (Mange) |
Mites of Sarcoptes, Cheyletiella, Dermanyssus, and Ornithonyssus spp |
Mammals and birds |
Worldwide |
Contact with infected animals, fomites |
Itchy skin lesions |
| Myiasis |
Cochliomyia hominivorax and Chrysomya bezziana (screw-worms) |
Mammals; rare in birds |
C hominivorax in South America, Caribbean; C bezziana in Asia, Africa, possibly Middle East |
Flies lay eggs on host, larvae enter wounds (as small as a tick bite), mucous membranes |
Painful, pruritic, foul-smelling enlarging dermal and subdermal wounds or nodules, often with serosanguineous discharge; some infestations in cavities including nasal cavity; larvae can invade living tissue, locally destructive (including bone, eye, sinuses, or cranial cavity); can be fatal if untreated |
|
Cordylobia anthropophaga, rarely C rodhaini(Tumbu flies) |
Mammals |
Africa, Saudi Arabia |
Larvae from environment invade unbroken skin |
Furuncular swelling at site of invasion, often feet |
|
Cuterebra spp |
Rodents, lagomorphs, occasionally other mammals |
North America |
Larvae from vegetation enter host in natural cavities or invade intact skin |
Subcutaneous furunculoid nodules; creeping skin eruption (uncommon); ocular lesions; rarely larvae in upper respiratory tract |
|
Dermatobia hominis (human bot fly) |
Mammals, some birds |
South and Central America, Mexico |
Eggs carried by other insects; larvae hatch and penetrate skin of mammalian host when insect lands |
Nonmigratory larvae in furuncles; pain, intense pruritus, sometimes with lymphangitis or lymphadenitis; can invade eyelids, eye sockets, mouth, especially in children |
|
Gasterophilus spp (equine bot fly) |
Equids, occasionally other mammals |
Worldwide |
Accidental exposure to larvae |
Serpiginous, pruritic red stripes on skin resembling cutaneous larva migrans; rarely gastric with nausea and vomiting |
| Myiasis |
Hypoderma lineatum, H bovis (warbles), and other Hypoderma spp |
H bovis and H lineatum in cattle, sometimes other mammals; other species primarily parasites of deer, caribou, or yaks |
North America, Europe, Asia; species distribution varies |
Eggs laid on host, larvae invade skin |
Usually subcutaneous (slowly moving furuncles that can appear and disappear) or similar to cutaneous larva migrans; endophthalmia uncommon; H lineatum may also cause fever, muscle pain, eosinophilia, sometimes respiratory, cardiac, or neurologic signs |
|
Oestrus ovis, Rhinoestrus purpurensis |
O ovis mainly in sheep, goats, also other mammals; R purpurensis mainly in equids |
O ovis worldwide; R purpurensis in Asia, Africa, Europe |
Larvae are deposited in nares, conjunctiva, occasionally lips/mouth by adult fly |
Conjunctival form, with lacrimation and sensation of irritating foreign body in eye, ocular destruction is rare; nasal form with localized pain or pruritus, congestion, headache; also in pharynx (inflammation, vomiting, dysphagia), rarely ear; usually self-limiting (except inside eye), as larvae cannot develop beyond first stage in humans |
|
Wohlfahrtia spp, Wohlfahrtia vigil, W magnifica |
W vigil in rabbits, mink, foxes, dogs, and other carnivores; W magnifica in sheep, cattle, other mammals, some birds, especially geese |
W vigil in North America; W magnifica in Europe (mainly Mediterranean), north Africa, Asia |
Larvae deposited on host or nearby, penetrate lesions (both agents) or intact skin (W vigil) and natural orifices |
W vigil causes subcutaneous abscesses, furuncles; W magnifica has been reported from skin, eye, vulva, ear, orotracheal region |
| Pentastomid infections |
Armillifer spp (tongue worms) |
Definitive hosts are snakes; intermediate hosts are rodents and other wild animals |
Africa, Asia |
Ingestion, via water or vegetables contaminated with eggs (from feces or saliva of snakes); undercooked snake meat; contaminated hands, fomites after handling snake meat |
Usually asymptomatic; large numbers of parasites can cause multifocal abscesses, masses, or obstruction of ducts in internal organs; symptoms vary with location |
|
Linguatula serrata |
Definitive hosts are dogs and other canids, felids; intermediate hosts are herbivores, especially sheep, goats, lagomorphs, and including humans |
Worldwide |
Ingestion of water or vegetables contaminated with eggs (from feces, saliva, or nasal discharge of definitive host); ingestion of larvae in undercooked liver or lymph nodes from intermediate hosts |
Ingestion of eggs—usually asymptomatic; ocular or pulmonary signs, abdominal pain, icterus, and other symptoms possible from invasion of internal organs
Ingestion of larvae—throat irritation, pain; edema, congestion of nasopharynx may cause dyspnea, difficulty swallowing; most severe cases are probably in people who have been sensitized |
| Tick paralysis (see Tick Paralysis) |
Dermacentor andersoni, D variabilis, and sometimes Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Rhipicephalus, Argas, and Hyalomma spp ticks |
Various animals |
Worldwide |
Tick attachment, especially on back of neck or along spinal column |
Elevated temperature, ascending flaccid paralysis; can cause respiratory paralysis, also paresthesia; ends when tick is removed, but recovery slow; death possible |
| Tunga infections |
Tunga penetrans (sand fleas, jiggers) |
Humans, dogs, pigs, other mammals |
Africa, Central and South America, Caribbean, south Asia |
Skin contact with contaminated soil |
Penetration of skin and burrowing result in pain and itching around discrete sores, often on feet; may be secondarily infected |
|
|
| Viral Diseases |
| Alkhurma virus infection |
Alkhurma virus; may be a variant or strain of Kyasanur Forest virus |
Sheep, goats, camels |
Mainly in Saudi Arabia; virus may exist throughout Arabian peninsula |
Direct contact including transmission via broken skin, ingestion of unpasteurized camel milk, mosquito bites |
Fever, headache, myalgia, anorexia, vomiting; encephalitic and hemorrhagic signs; case fatality rate 25% |
| Barmah Forest virus infection |
Barmah Forest virus, (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Natural hosts unknown; horses, brushtail possums may amplify virus |
Australia |
Mosquito bites; Culex annulirostris and Aedes spp implicated |
Identical to disease caused by Ross River virus (see p 2814), but persists longterm in fewer patients |
| Buffalopox virus infection |
Vaccinia virus, Buffalopox virus strain (Family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus) |
Water buffalo, cattle |
Indian subcontinent (south Asia), Egypt, Indonesia |
Skin contact with infected animals, often when milking |
Pox skin lesions mainly on hands, face, legs, buttocks; occasionally lymphadenopathy |
| California encephalitis virus (California serogroup) infections |
California encephalitis virus (Family Bunyaviridae, genus Orthobunyavirus); includes California, La Crosse, Tahyna, Inkoo, Jamestown Canyon, Morro Bay, Snowshoe hare, Chatanga, and other strains |
Many wild and domestic mammals |
North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia; possibly worldwide; distribution of each strain varies |
Mosquito bites |
Syndromes, severity vary with the strain; flu-like illness, meningitis, or encephalitis are common with North American strains |
| —La Crosse encephalitis |
La Crosse strain of California encephalitis virus (La Crosse virus) |
Chipmunks, squirrels are major amplifying hosts; rabbits, foxes, and other mammals can be infected |
North America |
Mosquito bites |
Many cases mild and flu-like; meningitis or encephalitis with seizures, paralysis, and focal neurologic signs possible; most cases in children; estimated case fatality rate in cases with encephalitis is 0.3% |
| —Tahyna fever |
Tahyna strain of California encephalitis virus (Tahyna virus) |
Hares, rabbits, rodents, hedgehogs and other mammals |
Europe, Asia, Africa |
Mosquito (culicine) bites |
Influenza-like illness, sometimes including GI signs; respiratory signs including bronchopneumonia in some; meningitis possible; most often in children; does not appear to cause fatal disease |
| Chikungunya virus infection |
Chikungunya virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Sylvatic cycle in nonhuman primates in Africa; virus thought to be maintained in humans in Asia |
Southeast Asia, Africa |
Mosquito (especially Aedes spp) bites |
Febrile illness, may have rash; arthralgia, especially in small joints, is prominent, may persist for months; myocarditis, neurologic signs, hemorrhages reported in a few cases |
| Colorado tick fever |
Colorado tick fever virus (Family Reoviridae, genus Coltivurus; Salmon River virus may be a variant |
Rodents (ground squirrels, chipmunks, mice, rats), porcupines, lagomorphs, deer, elk, and other mammals |
Rocky Mountain region of North America |
Tick (Dermacentor andersoni) bites |
Febrile illness with headache, myalgia, abdominal and retroorbital pain, other signs; biphasic or triphasic in some; neurologic signs, hemorrhages, pericarditis, myocarditis, or orchitis occasionally in severe cases; case fatality rate low |
| Contagious ecthyma (Orf, see Contagious Ecthyma) |
Orf virus (Family Poxviridae, genus Parapoxvirus) |
Sheep, goats, camelids, reindeer, wild ungulates; rare cases in dogs |
Worldwide |
Occupational exposure via contact with broken skin |
Papule(s) that umbilicate and ulcerate, usually on hands; dissemination rare; large lesions refractory to treatment can occur in immunosuppressed |
| Cowpox (see Pox Diseases) |
Cowpox virus (Family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus) |
Rodents are usual reservoir host; also in domestic and wild cats, occasionally cattle, other mammals |
Parts of Europe and Asia |
Contact exposure via broken skin, bites, scratches |
Vesicles that become pustular, to ulcerative nodules, scars; single or multiple lesions, often on hands; regional adenopathy and malaise, flu-like symptoms in some; lesions remain localized in healthy people; generalized disease may occur in immunocompromised, can include eye |
| Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (see Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever) |
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (Family Bunyaviridae, genus Nairovirus) |
Cattle, rodents, sheep, goats, hares, other mammals, some birds |
Africa, Middle East, central Asia, eastern Europe |
Tick bites, especially Hyalomma but also -Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor, other species; skin contact with animal or human blood or tissues or crushed ticks; ingestion of unpasteurized milk |
Fever, headache, pharyngitis, abdominal symptoms, petechial rash, hemorrhage, hepatitis; very severe in pregnant women; case fatality rate 30–50% |
| Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (see Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis) |
Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus); North American variant more virulent than South American variant |
Birds are principal reservoir hosts; clinical cases occur in equids and occasionally other mammals and birds; mammals are almost always dead-end hosts |
Western hemisphere |
Mosquito bites; Culiseta melanura important in maintenance cycle in birds; many genera can transmit to humans |
Nonspecific febrile illness may be followed by severe encephalitis, especially with North American variant; neurologic sequelae common after encephalitis; case fatality rate 30–70% with North American variant |
| Ebola hemorrhagic fever |
Zaire ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Ivory Coast ebolavirus, Bundibugyo ebolavirus (Family Filoviridae, genus Ebolavirus) |
Bats are reservoir hosts for Zaire ebolavirus and suspected reservoir hosts for others; primates, duikers, possibly other mammals can be infected |
Africa |
Contact with infected tissues (especially nonhuman primates and duikers); probable transmission from bats in caves |
Initially nonspecific febrile illness; maculopapular rash with desquamation; mild to severe bleeding tendency develops a few days after onset; mortality rate 36–90%, varies with the isolate |
| Encephalomyocarditis |
Encephalomyocarditis virus (Family Picornaviridae, genus Cardiovirus) |
Rodents may be reservoir hosts; also in swine, nonhuman primates, elephants, other mammals, and wild birds |
Worldwide in animals; uncommon in humans |
Uncertain |
Fever, severe headache, pharyngitis, neck stiffness, abdominal pain, vomiting and/or decreased reflexes have been reported in adults, with recovery within several days; CNS signs, including paralysis, can occur in children |
| Foot-and-mouth disease (see Foot-and-Mouth Disease) |
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (Family Picornaviridae, genus Aphthovirus, types A, O, C, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3, and Asia 1) |
Cattle, swine, sheep, goats, other cloven-hoofed animals (Artiodactyla), a few mammals in other orders |
Asia, Africa, Middle East, South America |
Contact exposure |
Humans can carry virus but do not usually become ill; mild influenza-like disease with vesicular lesions occurs very rarely |
| Hantaviral diseases |
|
|
|
|
|
| —Hantaviral pulmonary syndrome |
Sin Nombre, Black Creek Canal, Muleshoe, Bayou, Andes, Bermejo, Choclo, Araraquara, Juquitiba, Maciel and Castelo dos Sonhos viruses, others (Family Bunyaviridae, genus Hantavirus) |
Rodents; each virus tends to be associated with a single reservoir host |
North and South America |
Aerosols from rodent excretions and secretions; contact with broken skin and mucous membranes; rodent bites |
Prodromal stage with nonspecific febrile illness; followed by respiratory failure, cardiac abnormalities; hemorrhagic signs possible with South American viruses; significant kidney disease uncommon; mortality rate varies with the virus, but can reach 40–60% |
| —Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome |
Hantaan virus, Dobrava virus, Puumala virus, Seoul virus, others (Family Bunyaviridae, genus Hantavirus) |
Rodents; each virus tends to be associated with a single reservoir host, but Seoul virus is carried by both Rattus norvegicus and R rattus |
Europe, Asia; Seoul virus is worldwide |
Aerosols from rodent excretions and secretions; contact with broken skin and mucous membranes; rodent bites |
Prodromal stage with abrupt onset of fever, headache, back pain, petechiae, GI signs (may be severe); followed by hypotension, renal signs to renal failure with oliguria; hemorrhage in some; mortality rate varies with the virus, from <1% (Puumala virus) to 10–15% (Hantaan virus) |
| Hendra virus infection (see Hendra Virus Infection) |
Hendra virus (Family Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus) |
Fruit bats are normal reservoir host; horses can be infected |
Australia |
Direct contact with infected animals or contaminated tissue |
Respiratory infection, encephalitis; few cases described |
| Hepatitis E |
Hepatitis E virus, mammalian isolates (Family Hepadnaviridae, genus Avihepadnavirus) |
Humans, swine, deer, others |
Worldwide |
Fecal, oral spread; consumption of raw or undercooked meat and liver; waterborne |
Mild, self-limiting hepatitis to liver failure, more severe in pregnancy; usually acute, but can be chronic in solid organ transplant patients; case fatality rate 1% in general population, 20% in pregnant |
| Herpes B virus disease |
Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (Herpesvirus simiae, B virus) (Family Herpesviridae, genus Simplexvirus) |
Carried in genus Macaca (Old World macaques), with lifelong latency after infection; other nonhuman primates susceptible; cell cultures |
Worldwide, can be common, especially in closed groups of macaques; human cases rare |
Monkey bites and scratches, contamination of mucous membranes with infected saliva, secretions |
Influenza-like symptoms; vesicular skin lesions, pain, or itching around wound; followed by severe encephalitis with seizures, paralysis, coma; 85% mortality rate |
| Influenza virus infections |
|
|
|
|
|
| —Avian influenza |
Influenza A virus (Family Orthomyxoviridae, genus Influenzavirus A); avian influenza viruses; avian viruses that cause severe zoonotic disease are usually high pathogenicity (HPAI) strains |
Avian influenza viruses in wild and domestic birds; avian HPAI viruses generally found in poultry and rarely in wild birds; uncommon in mammals |
Worldwide; HPAI avian influenza viruses eradicated from domestic poultry in many developed countries |
Usually by contact with infected animals; avian viruses also in feces |
Avian influenza viruses can cause conjunctivitis, human influenza-like illness, or severe disease with multiorgan dysfunction, death; severity of disease varies with influenza strain |
| —Swine influenza |
Influenza A virus (Family Orthomyxoviridae, genus Influenzavirus A); swine influenza viruses |
Usually in pigs; also turkeys; can infect mink, ferrets |
Worldwide |
Usually by contact with infected animals; swine influenza viruses occur in respiratory secretions |
Seems to resemble human influenza; severity of disease varies |
| Japanese encephalitis (Japanese B encephalitis) |
Japanese encephalitis virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Swine, horses; wild birds are subclinical maintenance hosts; other mammals, reptiles, amphibians may be infected asymptomatically |
Asia, Pacific islands from Japan to the Philippines |
Mosquito (Culex tritaeniorhynchus, other Culex spp) bites; also through broken skin or mucous membranes after direct contact with infected tissues |
Fever, chills, myalgia, severe headache, GI symptoms; can progress to severe encephalitis; neurologic sequelae very common in survivors of encephalitis; case fatality rate 15–30% |
| Kyasanur forest disease |
Kyasanur forest virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Rodents, shrews, monkeys, possibly other mammals, birds |
India |
Tick (Haemaphysalis spinigera) bites |
Fever, headache, bradycardia, prostration, severe pain in extremities; course may be biphasic with remission followed by hemorrhagic signs (eg, ecchymoses, purpura, petechiae, GI bleeding, epistaxis); meningoencephalitis in some; case fatality rate 2–10% |
| Lassa fever |
Lassa virus (Family Arenaviridae, genus Arenavirus) |
Wild rodents, usually multimammate mouse |
Africa |
Contact with rodent excretions, secretions, or tissues |
Gradual onset of nonspecific febrile illness, may be followed by chest pain, cough, GI signs, hepatitis; severe swelling of head and neck, hypotension/shock can develop; pleural/pericardial effusions; hemorrhagic syndrome less common; overall mortality rate 1% in endemic areas; case fatality rate can be up to 50% during epidemics |
| Louping ill (Ovine encephalomyelitis, see Louping Ill) |
Louping ill virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Sheep, goats, other domestic and wild mammals, grouse, ptarmigan |
UK, Northern Ireland, Norway; rare |
Tick (Ixodes ricinus) bites; aerosol exposure in laboratory, contamination of skin wounds; possibly ingestion of milk |
Biphasic influenza-like illness, sometimes followed by meningitis or meningoencephalitis, paralysis, joint pain in second phase; not usually fatal |
| Lymphocytic choriomeningitis |
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (Family Arenaviridae, genus Arenavirus) |
Reservoir mainly house mice; can be maintained in hamster populations; also infects guinea pigs, chinchillas, rats, nonhuman primates, some other mammals |
Worldwide |
Contact with host excretions and secretions; bites |
Ranges from mild flu-like illness to biphasic with meningitis in second phase; arthritis, parotitis, and orchitis may occur; can be teratogenic (CNS) or cause abortion; rarely fatal in immunocompetent |
| Marburg hemorrhagic fever |
Lake Victoria Marburgvirus (Family Filoviridae, genus Marburgvirus) |
Bats are reservoir hosts; primates can be infected |
Africa |
Contact with infected tissues (especially nonhuman primates); probable transmission from bats in caves |
Initially nonspecific febrile illness; maculopapular rash with desquamation; hepatitis; mild to severe bleeding tendency develops a few days after onset; mortality rate 20–88%, varies with the isolate |
| Menangle virus infection |
Menangle virus (Family Paramyxoviridae) |
Fruit bats are normal reservoir host; pigs can also be reservoir |
Australia |
Close direct contact with tissues, amniotic fluid, blood reported in human cases |
Severe illness with fever, severe headache, myalgia, lymphadenopathy, drenching sweats, macular rash |
| Milker’s nodules (Pseudocowpox, see Pox Diseases: Pseudocowpox) |
Pseudocowpox virus (Family Poxviridae, genus Parapoxvirus) |
Cattle |
Worldwide |
Skin contact (especially broken skin) with lesions on cow’s udder or mouth of calf; also from fomites |
Papular to nodular red skin lesions; self-limiting |
| Monkeypox |
Monkeypox virus (Family Poxviridae, genus Orthopoxvirus) |
Nonhuman primates; Gambian rats, other African rodents; prairie dogs, other pet rodents, squirrels |
West and central Africa |
Contact with lesions, blood or body fluids, fomites; bites; aerosols |
Smallpox-like disease; flu-like symptoms followed by maculopapular rash, which develops into vesicles, pustules, scabs; lymphadenopathy prominent; respiratory signs, encephalitis possible; case fatality rate varies with strain, <1% to 10%; milder in those vaccinated for smallpox |
| Murray Valley encephalitis |
Murray Valley encephalitis virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Wild birds |
Australia, New Guinea |
Mosquito (Culex annulirostris) bites |
Asymptomatic infection in >99%; when disease occurs it can be severe; encephalitis, often with neurologic sequelae; poliomyelitis-like flaccid paralysis in some; case fatality rate >40% |
| Newcastle disease |
Newcastle disease virus/Avian paramyxovirus 1 (Family Paramyxoviridae, genus Avulavirus) |
Domestic and wild birds |
Mildly virulent (lentogenic, mesogenic strains) are found worldwide; highly virulent (velogenic) strains occur in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Central and South America, parts of Mexico; also in cormorants in USA |
Occupational exposure, usually after contact with large amounts of virus |
Highly virulent (velogenic) strains can cause self-limiting conjunctivitis, possibly other syndromes |
| New World hemorrhagic fever (Argentinean, Bolivian, Venezuelan and Brazilian hemorrhagic fevers [HF]) |
Arenaviruses in Tacaribe complex (Family Arenaviridae, genus Arenavirus): Juin virus (Argentine HF), Machupo virus (Bolivian HF), Guanarito virus (Venzuelan HF), Sabiá virus (Brazilian HF); possibly others |
Rodents |
Americas |
Viruses occur in rodent excretions, secretions, tissues; inhalation of aerosolized virus or direct contact with mucous membranes or broken skin |
Gradual onset of nonspecific signs including myalgia, headache, and fever; may develop petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages, bleeding, CNS signs, hypotension/shock; case fatality rate in Bolivian hemorrhagic fever 5–30%, Argentine hemorrhagic fever 15–20% |
| Nipah virus infection (see Nipah Virus Infection) |
Nipah virus (Family Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus) |
Fruit bats are normal reservoir; swine can be reservoir; occasionally in other mammals (spillover hosts) |
Malaysia, Bangladesh and Northern India; virus is probably endemic in southeast Asia, but outbreaks seem to cluster in certain geographic areas |
Direct contact with infected pigs or contaminated tissue; direct or indirect (eg, contaminated fruit juice) bat-to-human transmission |
Initial signs flu-like with fever, headache, myalgia, sometimes vomiting; encephalitis; respiratory disease including acute respiratory distress syndromes in some; septicemia; other complications in severely ill; case fatality rate 33–75% |
| Omsk hemorrhagic fever |
Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Voles, muskrats; also found in other animals |
Siberia |
Tick (Dermacentor spp) bites; direct contact with body fluids or carcasses of muskrats |
Biphasic febrile illness with headache, vomiting, papulovesicular rash on soft palate ± hemorrhages (nose, gums, lungs, uterus); CNS disease is uncommon; mortality rate <3% |
| Rabies and rabies-related infections (see Rabies) |
Rabies virus (Family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus) and the related lyssaviruses, Duvenhage virus, Mokola virus, Australian bat lyssa-virus, European bat lyssa-viruses; possibly others |
Wild and domestic canids, Mustelidae, Viverridae, Procyonidae, and order Chiroptera (bats) are important reservoir hosts; all mammals are susceptible; bats are reservoir hosts for Duvenhage virus, Australian bat lyssavirus, and European bat lyssaviruses; Mokola virus carried in rodents and shrews |
Rabies is worldwide except Australia, New Zealand, UK, Ireland, Scandinavia, Iceland, Japan, Taiwan; many smaller islands, including Hawaii, are free of infection |
Bites of diseased animals; aerosols in closed environments |
Paresthesias or pain at bite site; nonspecific prodromal signs such as fever, myalgia, malaise; mood changes progress to paresthesias, paresis, seizures, and many other neurologic signs; survival is extremely rare |
| Rift Valley fever (see Rift Valley Fever) |
Rift Valley fever virus (Family Bunyaviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Sheep, goats, cattle, buffalo, camels, nonhuman primates; squirrels and other rodents; puppies and kittens |
Africa |
Mosquito (Aedes spp) bites; contact with tissues |
Influenza-like febrile illness in most; complications including hemorrhagic fever, meningoencephalitis, or ocular disease in <5%; death uncommon |
| Ross River virus infection, Ross River fever |
Ross River virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Wallaby and dusky rats proposed as natural hosts; humans, horses may also be a source of virus during epidemics |
Australia, South Pacific Islands |
Mosquito (Culex annulirostris and Aedes spp) bites |
Mild fever, arthralgia +/– arthritis, headache, rash; small joints most affected; arthralgia, myalgia, lethargy may persist for months |
| St. Louis encephalitis |
St. Louis encephalitis virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Wild birds, domestic fowl; bats may also maintain virus |
Western hemisphere |
Mosquito (Culex tarsalis, C pipiens-quinquefasciatus complex, C nigripalpus) bites |
Flu-like illness sometimes followed by meningitis or encephalitis, focal neurologic signs, dysuria; more severe in elderly and those with debilitating diseases; overall case fatality rate 7%, but higher in elderly |
| Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) |
SARS coronavirus (Family Coronaviridae, genus Coronavirus) |
Bats are probable reservoir hosts; can also infect palm civets, raccoon dogs, cats, pigs, ferrets, rodents, nonhuman primates, other mammals |
China, southeast Asia |
Contamination of mucous membranes with respiratory droplets or virus on fomites; possibly aerosol transmission |
Fever, myalgia, headache, diarrhea, cough; viral pneumonia with rapid deterioration; case fatality rate 15% |
| Sindbis virus disease |
Sindbis virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Birds (mainly passeriforms); can be found in rodents, amphibians |
Eastern hemisphere; rare in humans |
Mosquito bites; many species can transmit |
Fever, arthritis, rash, prominent myalgia; nausea, vomiting, mild jaundice in some; joint pain can persist for months |
| Tanapox |
Tanapox virus (Family Poxviridae, genus Yatapoxvirus); Yaba-like disease virus may be a variant of tanapox virus |
Nonhuman primates |
Asia, Africa, and in monkey colonies |
Direct contact through broken skin; mosquitoes suspected to be vector in Africa |
Fever, severe backache, lymphadenopathy, and papulovesicular, pruritic lesions, often on extremities; rarely more than 1–2 skin lesions |
| Tick-borne encephalitis (Far eastern tickborne encephalitis; (Russian spring- summer encephalitis, Central European tickborne encephalitis) |
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus); three subtypes—European (TBEV-Eu; least virulent), Siberian (TBEV-Sib), Far Eastern (TBEV-FE) |
Small mammals especially rodents; goats, sheep, dogs, and other mammals; birdsvb |
Eurasia; TBEV-Eu mainly Europe to former USSR; TBEV-FE mainly Asia to former USSR; TBEV-Sib mainly in Siberia |
Tick (mainly Ixodes ricinus and I persculatus; also other species) bites; may be ingested in milk |
Often biphasic, with flu-like febrile illness in initial stage; neurologic signs from mild meningitis to severe encephalitis in some; myelitis or flaccid poliomyelitis-like paralysis (usually arms, shoulders, levator muscles of head); possibility of chronic and progressive forms, especially with TBEV-Sib; case fatality rate is <2% (TBEV-Eu), 2–3% (TBEV-Sib); case fatality rate of 20–30% in TBEV-FE may be based on severe cases |
| Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis |
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Rodents, birds, equids, occasionally in other mammals |
Western hemisphere |
Mosquito (Mansonia, Aedes, Culex spp) bites; exposure to aerosolized debris from infected laboratory rodents; laboratory accidents |
Most have nonspecific febrile illness; <5% progress to encephalitis with case fatality rate of 10% (adults) to 35% (children) |
| Vesicular stomatitis |
Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus, Vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus, Vesicular stomatitis Alagoas virus, and Cocal virus (Family Rhadboviridae, genus Vesiculovirus) |
Swine, cattle, horses; occasionally in South American camelids, sheep, and goats; also, rodents; serologic evidence of infection in many wild mammals especially bats |
North and South America |
Contact with animals or in laboratory, probably also from insect bites, including mosquitoes and biting flies (Phlebotomus spp, Lutzomyia spp, and black flies) |
Usually asymptomatic; may develop acute, febrile flu-like illness; vesicles can occur in mouth, pharynx, or inoculation site (eg, hands); self-limiting |
| Wesselsbron fever |
Wesselsbron virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Sheep; also cattle, lemurs, other mammals, and birds |
Southern Africa, southeast Asia |
Mosquito (Aedes spp and possibly others) bites; also by contact with contaminated material |
Fever, headache, myalgia, arthralgia; hyperesthesia of skin ± maculopapular rash in some; self-limiting |
| West Nile fever and neuroinvasive disease (see Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis) |
West Nile Virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus) |
Birds, horses, other mammals, alligators, possibly other reptiles and amphibians |
Eastern and Western hemisphere |
Mosquito (primarily Culex univittatus, Culex spp) bites; also by handling infected birds or reptiles or their tissues |
Nonspecific febrile illness, occasionally with rash; some cases progress to encephalitis, meningitis, and/or acute flaccid paralysis that resembles poliomyelitis; worse in elderly and immunocompromised; case fatality rate ~10% in all patients with neurologic disease, but higher in elderly |
| Western equine encephalomyelitis (see Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis) |
Western equine encephalomyelitis virus (Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) |
Birds are reservoir hosts, also cycles in jackrabbits; equids, other mammals are incidental hosts; virus is also found in reptiles, amphibians |
Western and Central USA, Canada, South America |
Mosquito (Aedes spp, Culex spp) bites |
Nonspecific febrile illness may be followed by encephalitis in infants and children, uncommonly in adults; case fatality rate 3–4% |
| Yellow fever |
Yellow fever virus (Family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus); only jungle cycle is zoonotic (humans are reservoir for urban cycle) |
Nonhuman primates |
South America, Africa |
Mosquito (Haemagogus spp and Sabethes spp in jungle cycles in South America, Aedes spp in jungle cycles in Africa) bites |
Nonspecific, mild to severe febrile illness followed by liver and renal failure in 20–50%; hemorrhages (eg, epistaxis, hematemesis, melena, uterine hemorrhage) and often jaundice in severe cases; cases with hemorrhages are often fatal |
|
|
| Prion Diseases |
| Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease |
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy prion |
Cattle are most important host; also infects other ruminants, cats and other felids, lemurs |
Most cases in the UK, but also in many other countries |
Ingestion of bovine products, especially those contaminated with CNS tissues |
Neurodegenerative disorder similar to sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, but often in younger patients and progresses more rapidly; always fatal |
| a Many proven zoonoses, including some relatively rare arthropodborne viral infections and helminth infections have been omitted, as well as those diseases caused by fish and reptile toxins. |
| b Enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive, enteropathogenic, and enteroaggressive strains are not considered zoonotic. |
